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ESSAYS ON THE 
ENDOWMENT OF EESEAECH. 



ESSAYS ON THE 



ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 



BY VARIOUS WRITERS. 



■ After all. not to create only, or found only, 
But to bring, perhaps from afar, what is already founded, 

» * » * * 

To fill the gross, the torpid bulk with vital religious fire ; 
Not to repel or destroy, so much as accept, fuse, rehabilitate ; 
To ober as well as command — to follow more than to lead.' 



O'i- G 



ONS^. 



c?, 






"cP 



>WA8H\!^iP^ 



HENRY S. KING & CO., LONDON 
1876. 



Wi 



4^ 



{The rights of translation and of reproduction are reserved.) 



yll 



PEEFACE. 

In the following collection of Essays it should be 
understood that each writer is responsible only 
for the opinions expressed in the paper bearing 
his name. The third, fourth, and fifth Essays 
have appeared before, in the Theological Review 
January 1875, in the Fortnightly Review of October 
1874, and in the Fortnightly Review for June 1875 
respectively ; but have been thoroughly revised. 



CONTENTS. 



PRINCIPLES. 



ESSAY I. 

REVIEW OP THE SITUATION. 

By Maek Pattison, B.D., Rector of Lincoln College, Oxford page 3 

ESSAY II. 

THE INTENTIONS OP THE FOUNDERS OP FELLOWSHIPS. 

By James S. Cotton, B.A., late Fellow and Lecturer of Queen's College, 

Oxford 26 

ESSAY III. 
THE ECONOMIC CHARACTER OP SUBSIDIES TO EDUCATION. 
By Charles E. Appleton, D.C.L., Fellow of St. John's College, Oxford 64 

ESSAY IV. 

THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH AS A FORM OF 

PRODUCTIVE EXPENDITURE. 

By the same 86 

ESSAY V. 

THE RESULTS OF THE EXAMINATION-SYSTEM AT OXFORD. 

By Archibald H. Satce, M.A., Fellow and Tutor of Queen's College, 

Oxford 124 



viii CONTENTS. 

ESSAY VI. 
UNENCUMBERED RESEARCH : A PERSONAL EXPERIENCE. 

By Henry Chiton Soebt, F.E.S., President of the Boyal Micro- 
.tcopical Society page 149 



EXAMPLES. 



ESSAY VII. 

THE MAINTENANCE OF THE STUDY OF THE BIBLE. 

By Thomas K. Chetne, M.A., Fellow and Lecturer of Balliol 
College, Oxford 179 

ESSAY VII L 

THE NEEDS OF THE HISTORICAL SCIENCES. 

By Archibald H. Satce, M.A., Fellow and Tutor of Queen's College, 

Oxford 197 

ESSAY IX. 
THE NEEDS OF BIOLOGY. 

By W. T. Thiselton Dyer, M.A., late Junior Student of Christ Church, 
Oxford; Assistant Director of the Royal Gardens, Kew . .226 

ESSAY X. 

THE PRESENT RELATIONS BETWEEN CLASSICAL 
RESEARCH AND CLASSICAL EDUCATION IN ENGLAND. 

By Henry Nettleship, M.A., Fellow and Tutor of Corpus Christi 

College, Oxford; late Assistant Master at Harrow School . .244 

APPENDICES * . .269 



PEINCIPLES 



^f 



ESSAYS 

ON THE 

ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 



REVIEW OF THE SITUATION. 
Bj Mark Pattison, B.D., Hector of Lincoln College, Oxford. 

The nineteentli century -will be marked in the constitu- 
tional annals of England as the epoch of revival of the 
central authority. Since the overthrow of the crown 
in the great revolution of the seventeenth century 
(1640-88), local and particular institutions and cor- 
porations had almost wholly emancipated themselves 
from control by government. The arm of the executive 
was weakened, and could not reach bodies so remote 
and powerful as the municipal and charitable corpora- 
tions. The growth of the power of the House of 
Commons gradually supplied the want of strength in 
the government. This assembly began by wresting its 
own nomination from the great nobles and landowners. 



4 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

It assumed to itself tlie appointment of the executive, 
and one bj one it attacked tlie privileged and chartered 
corporations. Tithes, boroughs, charities, cathedrals, 
endowed schools, Church of Ireland — one after another 
have fallen and submitted to its heavy hand. 

In 1854 the House of Commons, after many threats 
and long hesitation, made its onslaught on the univer- 
sities, or rather on the colleges. It was a fair stand-up 
fight between these wealthy and powerful societies and 
the representatives of the nation. The issue may be 
said to have been a drawn battle. The colleges were 
not remodelled, nor did they lose a shilling of their 
j)roperty. On the other hand, the assailant made good 
his claim to overhaul and to legislate. Everyone felt 
that this first baffled attempt was but a prelude. We 
are now (1876) in the middle of the second Punic war, 
and no one can fail to see the importance of the advan- 
tage gained by the attacking party in the first. In 
1854 we disputed the right of interference, and invoked 
our charters and the sacredness of private property. 
This ground is no longer taken. The cry of ' spoliation ' 
is no longer raised. We talk as a, matter of course of 
taking away the property of the colleges and giving it 
to the university, and no one is shocked or so much as 
hints at ' confiscation.' Founders' intentions it is true 
were alluded to in the bill now passing through the 
House ; but this is obviously ' honoris causa.' We do 
not intend to regard them at all — that standpoint is 
given up. k\\ parties are agreed that the colleges shall 



REVIEW OF THE SITUATION. 5 

be wholly remodelled. There is no fight about this. 
The struggle will be what model shall be adopted. 

This is the history of the relation of the colleges to 
the central authority in the state. In the time of 
Elizabeth and James they depended directly on the 
crown. The monarch was in personal relations with 
their members. He chided or commended^ patronised 
or punished them. The colleges were shielded from 
attack by the power of the crown, and, in return for its 
protection, they submitted to its usurpation of their 
most cherished privileges. James II. was the last 
prince who exerted his prerogative for the nomination 
of heads and fellows. From 1688 to 1854 the colleges 
governed themselves and administered their property 
without control or interference from without. 

Had the central government no other object in 
dealing with the universities than the assertion of its 
own power, it could not have been successfully resisted. 
It had become necessary to remind these republics 
within the state that there were limits to their auto- 
nom3^ But in 1854 there were other questions at 
issue besides that of the supremacy of the imperial 
authority. The government of the day was set in 
motion by an external pressure. In appointing a royal 
commission of enquiry the ministry did but yield to the 
demands of the public. As in the case of all the other 
endowed and charitable trusts throughout the kingdom, 
so in the case of the colleges within the universities, 
abuses were alleged. 



6 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

The ' abuses ' charged -upon the colleges were not of. 
the gross nature of those which had led to the visitation 
and reform of the charities and the municipal bodies. 
Peculation or embezzlement were neither suspected nor 
found. The colleges being eleemosynary foundations, 
and not trustees, could not be guilty of diverting public 
funds to private uses. The management of their pro- 
perty has been shown to be more economical than that 
of mosfc private landowners. As usually happens when 
any institution has once become unpopular, inconsistent 
accusations were heaped upon the colleges. It was 
urged, e.g., that they habitually violated statutes they, 
yet swore to observe ; and, at the same time, they 
were taunted with obstinately adhering to codes of 
rules which had originated in the dark ages. But 
the colleges had been gradually becoming unpopular. 
All through the eighteenth century this alienation of 
feeling had been going on. It was brought to a climax 
about the middle of the present century, when parlia- 
mentary reform, and the extension of the suffrage, had 
given the popular element voice and weight in the 
direction of affairs. 

Dismissing incidental and minor charges brought 
against the colleges, the public feeling of dissatisfaction 
at this period (1850) may be said to have run in two 
main channels, and to have been entertained by two 
separate sections of English society. 

The educated class, containing the professions, and 
the irregular professions of letters and science, com- 



BEVIEW OF THE SITUATION. 7 

plained that university education was ' behind the 
age,' as the phrase then ran. Professing to be the 
highest school of teaching in the country, the greater 
part of knowledge was excluded from, or unknown in, 
the universities. What Oxford taught was confined to 
the Latin and Greek classics, and even in this depart- 
ment it was reduced to import its text-books from 
Germany. Useless studies, obsolete methods, an effete 
system, and generally incapable teachers — this was the 
description of Oxford which was received in literary 
and scientific circles. The belief in our general obscu- 
rantist tendencies was confirmed by the fact that we 
had usually chosen to be represented in parliament by 
the most reactionary and bigoted country gentlemen 
we could find. 

Wholly different, but equally unfavourable to the 
colleges was the conception of Oxford prevalent among 
the lower middle class, which was now beginning to 
contribute an important contingent to public opinion. 
This class, the modern growth of manufacturing in- 
dustr}', did not and could not share the views which I 
have attributed to the professional classes. Wholly 
destitute of culture, even of manners, without the tradi- 
tions of literature, its only reading the newspaper, its 
only interest the sordid squabbles of local politics, the 
lower middle class knew of Oxford only as a place of 
extravagance and dissipation for the sons of the gentry. 
To a class whose one virtue was industry, the fellow of 
a college appeared as an ' idle clergyman.' The col- 



8 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

leges received large incomes, and *did' nothing for 
them. Headships and fellowships were sinecures. 

These two distinct streams of opinion met in 1850, 
and formed that pressure from without, which led to 
the abortive commission and Act of 1854. 

Different as these current views of Oxford were, it 
will be seen that they concurred in one point, viz. in 
regarding the colleges as seminaries of education 
merely. Accordingly, the recommendations of the 
reporting commission of 1852 were directed wholly 
towards increasing the efficiency of teaching. The 
Report of that commission did indeed recognise the 
historical fact that the colleges were instituted (Eeport, 
p. 140) for study. But the recommendations of the 
Report gave no effect to this recognition, and by the Act 
of 18,54, founded on these recommendations, the fellows 
of colleges were relieved from the statutable obligations 
to study under which they had hitherto held their 
places. It is true that they had in practice alread}^ 
dispensed themselves from this obligation. All that 
the Act of 1854 therefore did was to legalise the exist- 
ing practice, and to annnl an obligation which it was 
admitted could not be enforced. But while it was 
suppressing the duties, it did not suppress the revenues. 
The hypocrisy of party cries never exhibited greater 
effrontery than in the cry of founders' intentions which 
was raised in 1854. If the founder intended anything, 
he intended to provide a maintenance to priest- students. 
A life of prayer and praise, of penury and secluded 



REVIEW OF THE SITUATION. 9 

contemplation, as tlie condition of a life of learning — 
this was the idea of the fifteenth century collegiate 
establishment. A course of not less than twenty years 
of study and exercise conducted the academic to the 
apex of the doctorate. The founder proposed to pro- 
vide the ardent but pauper student with a house, food, 
the bare necessaries of life, with opportunity of 
common worship. The fellow of 1854, who was not 
a Catholic priest, who had never heard of such a thing 
as mature study, a younger son of a well-to-do family, 
who drew his annuah pension of 250Z. free to go any- 
where, filled the length and breadth of England with 
an indignant howl over the sacrilegious violation of 
founders' intentions. 

It is true that this Tory cry was not listened to by 
the legislature. The founders' intentions were swept 
away by the Act, and not a vestige of them left. The 
Ordinances for the colleges, framed under the Act, 
abolished not only the statutable requirements of 
studies and exercises, but even the obligation to pro- 
ceed to the superior degree. But the Conservative 
resistance had been so far eflfectual that it paralysed 
the action both of the legislature and of the commis- 
sioners. They took away the duties, but they could 
not dare to touch the revenues. They suppressed the 
founder's will, but they left his property untouched. 
They created a vast system of sinecure pensions to the 
tune of 130,000Z. a year. 

As soon as our cry of ' founders ' had answered its 



10 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

purpose, we let it drop. From the moment that the 
j)roperty was secured to us, we have not said another 
word about violent interference with founders' wills. 
We were only too glad to be rid of conditions which we 
never attempted to observe, and to enjoy our incomes 
unconditionally as life-freeholders. In the changed 
attitude of the colleges towards parliamentary inter- 
ference, one striking feature is the entire abandonment, 
in 1876, of the appeal to founders' wills which played 
so large a part in 185 1. Other lessons may be drawn 
from this marked change of the language of party. 
The point to which I wish now to direct attention is, 
the indication it affords of a change in the position of 
parties, and of the questions which now divide them. 

The real bearing of the ordinances framed by the 
commission of 1854, was not at first apparent. The 
fact that the end and purpose for which these corpora- 
tions had been created and endowed had been taken 
away by these ordinances was masked from public ap- 
prehension by another circumstance. The circum- 
stance to which I refer is the educational duties to 
which the colleges had voluntarily devoted themselves. 
Instead of retreats for study, the colleges had become, 
by a gradual transformation of which the history is 
familiar to all, public establishments for the education 
of youth. It must, at first, have been supposed by the 
public that the endowments of the colleges, whatever 
their original destination, were now employed in educa- 
tion. This belief may have satisfied that lower stratum 



REVIEW OF THE SITUATION. 11 

of public opinion, whicli I have described as found in 
the lower middle classes of English life, and of which 
the principle is that a man should ' do something ' for 
his money. Meantime the feeling of the higher, or 
educated, class was conciliated by the great improve- 
ment which had been effected in the teaching and cur- 
riculum. It is an undoubted fact that Oxford stands 
at present much higher in the estimation of the com- 
munity at large than it did in 1850. It exerts a much 
wider influence over opinion in proportion as it has 
become less ecclesiastical, less absorbed in futile theo- 
logical-disputation. Hostility to it is diminished, if it 
has not wholly disappeared. 

What then are the remaining causes of dissatis- 
faction ? What is it that has led to the call for a new 
reform bill ? From what side does the present move- 
ment, which Lord Salisbury's bill is intended to satisfy, 
come ? 

This question is not so easy to answer as might be 
thought. 1 have asked over and over again, why 
should a Conservative government have meddled with 
the university at all ? It is not part of the Tory pro- 
gramme to promote science, to foster intelligence, to 
raise the level of education. Property, character, re- 
spectability, church principle, obedience to superiors, 
these have been the basis on which Toryism has rested, 
these are the valuable qualities it has fostered, and to 
the production of which it would fain direct its educa- 
tion. In its adhesion to this programme lay the 



12 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

strength of Conservatism. How is it that it should 
have deserted its traditional ground, and taken up the 
policy of the Liberal party ? Twenty years ago the 
very title of ' professor ' was odious to the Conserva- 
tives, who used all their strength, and successful!}^, to 
prevent the employment of college funds for the endow- 
ment of professorial chairs. Now in 1876, when the 
universities were working better than they had ever 
done, when there was no public dissatisfaction^ no call 
whatever for interposition, a Conservative government 
comes down upon us with a. bill the object of which, so 
far as we can discover its object, is to promote that 
very kind of reform which twenty years ago it employed 
all its strength to defeat — the conj&scation, viz., of 
college property for the benefit of the university. 

The mere secret history of cabinet cabal, it may be 
said, is of small consequence in the present question. 
It may be left to the party debater to taunt the Con- 
servatives with having stolen the clothes of the 
Liberals, with adopting as regards the universities, 
that 'harassing ' policy they had so effectively denounced, 
with having become converts to spoliation and the pro- 
fessoriate. All we have to consider is. Is what is now 
proposed to be done likely to promote science and 
learning in the university or not ? 

It cannot be alleged that there was any pressure 
of opinion from without which called for a further uni- 
versity reform. The bill of the present ministry is a 
legacy from the ' harassing ' legislation of their prede- 



REVIEW OF THE SITUATION. 13 

cessors. If, however, we consult opinion witliout, as to 
what it thinks of Oxford;, we shall find that the two 
currents which I distinguished before 1850, as the 
opinion of the professional and scientific, and the 
opinion of the lower middle class, are still flowing. 
Opinion, it seems to me, did not run against Oxford 
with any such force as to demand legislative action ; 
but if legislative interference is officiously offered by 
the government, it must at least profess to satisfy the 
two main streams of opinion which I have indicated. 

1. According to the opinion of the middle classes of 
England, Oxford is a place of education. They may 
like, or dislike it, for being aristocratic, high church, 
expensive, idle, dissipated, fashionable, but all are 
agreed that whatever epithets may be applied to it, it 
is a place of education. We ourselves, i.e. the colleges, 
have no other conception of our vocation. Meanwhile 
a vague notion was being spread that these societies, 
which existed only for education, were possessed of 
large landed, or other property. The central govern- 
ment wished to kno w ' how much ' ? It asked us to 
tell in 1851, but we yelled and screamed, and threw 
dust in the air, and got off telling for the moment. 
The question was repeated in. 1874, and in sterner and 
more determined tones. The howling this time was 
confined to the bursars of the colleges. These gentle- 
men were certainly hardly used, in being required to 
make laborious returns upon schedules quite unneces- 
sarily complicated. But it will be observed that the 



14 OX THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

colleges this time showed no reluctance to produce 
their rentrolls. The public, as usual, in the absence 
of information, had indulged in exaggeration. We 
paid the just penalty of having refused in 1851 to make 
any return, in being now credited with extravagant 
riches. In 1874 we were rather anxious to disabuse 
general opinion by letting it be known how moderate 
our incomes really were. 

The return was made. It was ascertained that the 
nett income of the university and colleges of Oxford was 
400,000Z. a year. To combine this fact, or jSgure, with 
that other fact or figure that Oxford is a place for the 
education of 2,000 students, required no great powers 
of logic. It was a sum in division. Divide the pounds 
sterling by the students, and it is obvious that each 
undergraduate costs 200L a year to educate. To edu- 
cate, observe ; simply teachers' fees ; for the pupil pays 
himself for his board, lodging-, all his necessaries and 
amusements. The teaching power, for 2,000 under- 
graduates, staff, apparatus, chapels, libraries, deans, 
tutors, heads, prize-fellowships, who all exist for the 
sake of the undergraduate, cost 400,OOOZ. a year. This 
is a striking, not to say staggering, result. If the lower 
and uneducated classes should ever come to an appre- 
hension of these figures, how must they reason upon 
them ? ' This annual sum arises out of national pro- 
perty. National property belongs to us. We are even 
told by some that it was given by the founders to the 
poor students. It is all spent upon educating the sons 



REVIEW OF THE SITUATION. 15 

of the rich.' It is certain that as information slowly 
finds its way downwards, this simple reasoning must 
come into vogue. Meanwhile, so far as the figures have 
been reflected on by the classes at present interested in 
the universities, the conviction has arisen that there is 
something wrong here. The expenses of this educa- 
tional establishment are out of all proportion to the work 
done. We have not so much fault to find with the 
teaching, but it is too expensive. 400,000^ a year for 
' tuition, prizes, and the use of the globes ' is too much. 
It can be done cheaper. 

If this is a true description, first of the actual 
reasoning of the middle classes, and secondly of the 
prospective reasoning of the lower classes, it becomes 
intelligible why a Conservative government should have 
found it necessary to take the initiative and endeavour 
to obviate the economic objection to Oxford. The objec- 
tion of its extravagant cost is not the only objection 
that can be brought, but it is the only one which is 
urged with any effect, or which can be adequately ap- 
prehended by the middle class of an industrial commu- 
nity with little education and no culture. The sum in 
arithmetic — divide the pounds by the pupils — that is 
an argument by which ' the constituencies ' are capable 
of being moved. It is an act of statesmanship to an- 
ticipate this movement, and to deal with ' the surplus 
funds' of the colleges, before they' are seized by igno- 
rant hands. I offer this as a conjectural history of 
Lord Salisbury's bill. 



16 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

Something tlien liad to be done with, the money, 
which could not be spent on teachers, plant, and prizes. 
What should be done with it ? This might have proved 
an embarrassing problem had it occurred some years 
earlier. Had the ' surplus funds ' had to be spent in 1866, 
they might have gone to found commercial schools in 
the great towns of the provinces ; as in 1793, when the 
French, who never do things by halves, suppressed their 
universities, and founded ' lycees,' or grammar schools, 
in every department. But here came into play that 
other current of opinion, which I have before described 
as the opinion of the scientific and literaiy classes. 

2. The opinion of this class in the first half of the 
present century was unanimous in denouncing the 
barrenness and inefficiency of Oxford as a place of edu- 
cation. Since 1850 this complaint has gradually died 
away. The things complained of have been remedied. 
We have gradually introduced all the reforms in our 
curriculum which were demanded of us. All the new 
subjects are taught here, and the old subjects are taught 
with, more system and energy than before. But the 
quarter of a century which has elapsed since 1850 has 
been to us pregnant with a new experience. This new 
experience is just now fermenting in our minds. None 
of us, perhaps, can speak about it with confidence as 
yet, or take a side in regard to it. But we all feel that 
out of this newest phase of our educational experience 
is arising the question of the day, the question upon 
which university reorganisation at this moment will 



REVIEW OF THE SITUATION. 17 

turn. This experience is new to us, but it is old in tLe 
history of education. 

In ages or countries where methods of education 
were not matters of study or experiment, the higher 
education was merely casual, traditional, formal. A 
certificate or degree, or a certain social status, was ob- 
tained by passing through it, and nothing more was 
thought of. Whenever or wherever the development 
of the intellect became the object of serious study, and 
systematic effort, one or other of two methods has been 
tried. For there are but two methods by which the 
young intelligence can be stimulated to the prolonged 
effort which is required in order to grapple successfully 
with any considerable body of knowledge. Free intel- 
ligence as such has an elasticity of its own. The mind 
in its spring puts itself forth on all sides. It requires 
no stimulation, but only to be directed. The reason, 
by -its own nature, seeks truth. The young mind de- 
sires to know, to explore the unknown, to find out the 
nature and causes of things. The task of the teacher 
is easy, it is only to satisfy this longing. He has but to 
guide and aid; he may have to restrain ardour, never 
to urge reluctance. The stimulus to acquisition is 
within. 

This is the only true foundation on which a univer- 
sity can be placed. The ' hautes etudes ' can only be 
profitably pursued in this spirit. It is a process of 
natural selection by which aptitudes find their develop- 
ment. In some ages and countries such ingenuous in- 

c 



18 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

telligence, wliicli is tlie raw material of tlie liiglier 
education, is rare. Again there have been times and 
places, where there has occurred a general outbreak of 
intellectual ardour, and the enthusiasm of learning. 
Such a period was the great speculative outburst of the 
twelfth century (1150—1250), out of which universities 
arose. Such again was the Italian renaissance of the 
fifteenth century ; and, in a less marked degree, the 
philological and philosophical movement which elevated 
the German universities to the monopoly of learning in 
Europe, in the period which began with the accession 
of Frederick the Great (1740-1848). These are extra- 
ordinary epochs; overflowings of the human spirit; 
moments of inspiration, incalculable and irreducible to 
system. But apart from such crises of exaltation it 
may be said, that the method known as Humanism 
was founded upon the average or permanent instincts 
in the human mind which push it to desire expansion 
or culture for their own sake. This method is wholly 
voluntary, it submits to no compulsion from the state, it 
employs no artificial allurements, but depends entirely 
upon the attraction which science, letters, and the 
humanities exert upon the classes possessed of wealth 
and leisure. 

In opposition to this method stands the method of 
recruitment by bounties. The introduction of the 
system of emulation, and prizes into the higher studies 
is historically traceable to the Jesuits. The adoption 
©f the principle of perpetual supervision, of repeated 



BE VIEW OF THE SITUATION. 19 

examinations, of weekly exercises, produced marvellous 
results in the Jesuit colleges. For a century and a 
lialf these establishments carried all before them, and 
earned the praises of all, even Protestant, observers, 
who contrasted their energy and zeal with the lifeless 
routine of the old universities. It was not till the first 
half of the 1 8th century that opinion began to turn. It 
required time for the experiment of external stimulus 
applied to intellectual development to be fairly tried 
a,nd judged. It was then found, that, beneath this 
brilliant show of college exercises and prizes, was con- 
cealed a starved and shrivelled understanding. The 
work done in class was pattern work ; but the pupil 
whom the institution turned out" was a washed-out, 
frivolous, superficial being. Without any hold either 
on the verities of science, or on the recorded experience 
of history, he was at the mercy of the opinions and 
superstitions of the day. All the learning and know- 
ledge, which wa,s in the possession of the civilised 
communities of Europe, existed outside the Jesuit 
seminaries, as well as outside the old universities of 
Trance and England. The rising tide of progressive 
opinion first engulfed the Jesuit establishments, and in 
1793 swept away the old universities and faculties of 
France. Education was to be reorganised, from the 
summit downwards, in the light of the best ideas of 
the age. Everything was changed and readapted. 
But amid all these arrangements, which it is not to my 
present purpose to notice, one thing was adopted into 

c 2 



20 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

the new * Unirersity of France,' unclianged, from the- 
Jesuit method. This was the system of constant exami- 
nation. In France and in Austria, down to this very 
day, the Jesuit system of external stimulus by examina- 
tion and prizes holds its ground. The result of the 
system in both countries is the extinction of the 
severer studies, the enfeeblement of the spirit of 
research, the banishment of scientific habits of thought. 
University education in France has no existence. In 
its place stands a minutely ramified system of prepara- 
tion for examination. The so-called ' faculties ' of 
letters in the provinces are wholly outside this system 
of cram, and seem to produce no other fruit than 
elegant epideictic orations delivered by the professors, 
not to the stadents, but to a miscellaneous audience 
of ladies and gentlemen who come and go during 
the hour, and who manifest by frequent applause their 
gratification at the intellectual treat they are enjoying. 
Such is the present condition of the higher educa- 
tion in France — the result of over-riding instruction by 
examinations. M. Michel Breal says of it : — ' Au milieu 
d'une societe qui est ou qui se croit renouvelee, nous 
avons conserve une organisation des etudes, qui, des le 
dernier siecle, paraissoit aux meilleurs esprits etroite 
et arrieree. On objecte que cet enseignement nous a 
donne les grands hommes du 18eme siecle et beau- 
coup d'esprits eminents de notre epoque. Mais ce 
n'est pas sur une elite qu'il faut juger un systeme 
d'instruction. De tout temps, et meme en Tabsence 



REVIEW OF THE SITUATION. 21 

de tout enseignement, la I^rance a. produit des lioinmes 
de genie. La partie instruite de la nation est-elle 
devenue plus serieuse, plus capable de grands efforts 
d'intelligence et de volonte? A-t-elle le gout des 
ceuvres severes et des recherclies desinteressees ? Est- 
elle pourvue d'un esprit critique capable de reconnoitre, 
dans une situation difficile, quelle est la conduite a 
tenir ? A-t-elle su prendre un parti dans les grandes 
questions politiques, religieuses, sociales, qui ont agite 
notre temps? Est-elle devenue plus capable de se 
gouverner ? Notre societe fran9oise occupe-t-elle encore 
en Europe la place qu'elle avoit sous Louis XIV, ou 
sous Louis XV? Voila les questions qu'il faut se 
poser quand il s'agit d'un enseignement donne par 
I'Etat a des miUiers de jeunes gens.' — {Instruction Pub- 
lique en France, p. 324.) 

In France this system is maintained by a school 
tradition of long standing, ascending beyond the revo- 
lution and the creation of lycees. In both countries, 
Erance and England, it is backed by a large body of 
professional teachers, whose teaching experience shows 
them, that no stimulus is equal in efficacy to the emu- 
lation excited by a public competition attended by 
honours and prizes. Dissatisfaction with the system 
is felt in both countries, but it is as yet confined to a 
few. These few are those whose interest in the subject 
they teach is greater than their interest in the process 
of teaching it. To the professional teacher all subjects 
are alike, or are only differentiated by their fitness for 



22 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

examination "uses. To him his pupil^s success is Ms one 
aim and reward. A few only out of tlie whole guild of 
teachers are reached by the inspiration of true science. 
To these few to acquire, and to communicate, are 
but functions of one and the same mental habit. These 
men feel keenly the insincerity and unsoundness of all 
that teaching and learning which is done in prepara- 
tion for examination. It is not that it is a degradation, 
to be always confined to the elements ; it is, that no- 
thing is truly known which is learnt for a purpose. 
Science which is not disinterested ceases to be science. 
It is chiefly a.mong scientific men that this sentiment 
of science for science sake is found. But, whether in 
science, or in a less degree in literature, it is necessarily 
the best minds which are most susceptible of the 
sentiment. Though fev/ in number, and therefore in- 
capable of commanding opinion, they have yet no in- 
considerable influence upon it. 

In the last two years especially, an idea has been, 
growing up, and gaining strength, which takes this 
direction. We are beginning to see, that science and 
letters are a vocation, that they have a value in them- 
selves, and are not merely useful as teachable material. 
That where they are only * taiight ' and not pursued, 
emulation and prizes may sustain the teacher and the 
learner, but that the results thus reached are at best 
only a spurious mental product, a base imitation of true 
knowledge. That universities have other functions 
than that of educating youth. That liberal and scientific 



REVIEW OF THE SITUATION. 23 

culture, intelligence, and the wliole domain of mind, is 
a national interest, as much as agriculture, commerce, 
banking, or water-supply. The attacks of the Comtist 
theorists against disinterested knowledge have been 
useful in bringing the opposite conception into a clearer 
light. This conception it is which is acquiring noto- 
riety under the term * research' (recherches). The 
term is inappropriate enough, but like all complex con- 
ceptions, no one word in the language is anything like 
adequate to cover this conception, yet some one word 
must be employed when we want to speak much of the 
thing. 

What precisely this higher function, which we now 
demand of a university, is, and how a university is to 
be organised for its performance, are matters on which 
even the most advanced thinkers may well at present 
not see their way. In this present year (1876) the 
government has undertaken to deal with the university 
of Oxford in a much more searching and thorough way 
than it did twenty-two years ago. Though the bill now 
pending in parliament professes not to touch the in- 
ternal organisation of the academic body, it does not- 
withstanding do so in its most vital point. How the 
commission shall deal with this question, which has 
been baptised by its friends or its enemies, ' the endow- 
ment of research,' is truly the one diflSicult problem they 
will have to solve. For the profession of the govern- 
ment is, that they are only going to take the property 
of the colleges and give it to the university. This plain 



2i ON THE ENDOWMENT OF JRESEARCH. 

and flagrant confiscation is justified on grounds of 
public policy. Tliese grounds of public policy are, as 
alleged, tbat * idle fellowsbips ' should be turned into 
professorsbips. Examine tbe principle wbieb underlies 
this intended redistribution of tbe endowment fund, 
and it comes to this ; tbe ^ idle fellowships ' are a part 
of our system of bounties. Tbey are tbe prizes by wbicb 
we attract numbers who have no vocation for either 
science or letters, to pretend to study science and 
classics till they are twenty-two. These prizes it is 
proposed to abolish, and with them to make professor- 
ships. The professor, if he is really such, and can 
claim to be the representative man of his given subject 
not only in its elementary but in its higher and pro- 
gressive parts, symbolises the so-called * research.' The 
very essence then of the duty laid upon the commission 
by the government is to curtail the prize system, and 
to endo^v ' research.' It is true that this, which is the 
plain meaning of the bill, may not have been in the in- 
tention of the promoters. The^'^ may have thought that 
they were only transferring the endowment from the 
taught to the teacher, from the pupil to the tutor, and 
not from the prize-system to the system of disinterested 
knowledge. They may think that if you make pro- 
fessors they will become the teachers of the place. It 
may be the object of the bill merely to provide endow- 
ment for the tutors, whose business it is to prepare the 
students for their examinations, to give them the title 
of professor, and enhanced stipends no longer out of 



MEVIEW OF THE SITUATION. 25 

fees, but out of collegiate revenue. Or, on tlie other 
hand, is the new professor who is to be created, to be 
the master of his science and its representative before 
the world, the man in whose person the * endowment of 
research ' is only veiled from the sneers of Philistinism 
by the thin disguise of setting him to deliver a terminal 
course of lectures to empty benches ? 

Thus it is, that the commission is set to adjudicate, 
and Oxford is called upon to decide, in a moment of 
time, and in a crude state of opinion, upon the momen- 
tous issue between a prize-system and disinterested 
knowledge. What on the surface seems only a money 
bill, and to regard nothing but ' the surplus revenues ' 
of the colleges, does really raise one of the most difficult 
problems of educational practice. What is done with 
Oxford in the next two years will give the tone and set 
the example, for the whole country for generations to 
come. Shall we have a university to which free science, 
and liberal letters attract, hj their own lustre, only such 
ingenuous youth as have a true vocation ; or shall we 
have a great national lycee through the routine of 
which we shall attempt to force willing and unwilling, 
apt and unapt alike, by the stimulus of emulation, of 
honours, prizes, and rewards ? 



im o:n^ tub endowment of research. 



11. 



THE INTENTIONS , OF THE FOUNDERS OF 
FElioWSHIPS} 

By James Sutherland Cotton, B.A., Late Felloio and Lecturer 
of Queen's College, Oxford. 



To study, not to teach, was the business of the Fellows. — Gold win Smith. 

During the last few years there may have been observed, 
by those who are interested in the subject, a growing 
tendency in the public mind in favour of the endow- 
ment of scientific research. The interests of the mature 
student, as complementary rather than as antagonistic 
to those of educational establishments, are beginnings 
to be recognised, and have obtained the patronage of 
certain powerful supporters. The thorough-going 
recommendations of the Commission on the Advance- 
ment of Science presided over by the Duke of Devon- 
shire, when read by the light of the evidence on which 

' This essay was written Lefore Lord Salisbury introduced the ' Oxford 
University Bill' into the nouse of Lords, and at a time when it was not 
certainly known that the Government were prepared to deal with the 
subject. But the writer is not aware that the discussion, which has sub- 
sequently arisen, is of such a nature as to modify his positions on any 
material points. — J. S. 0. 



INTENTIONS OF FOUNDERS OF FELLOWSIIIIS. 2r 

they were based, have done much to open the eyes of 
the public. So long as the project for m.aintaming' 
scientific investigators at the national expense continued 
to be only the hobby of individuals, who were always 
exposed to the imputation of self-seeking, it was but 
natural that it should be sniffed at by the press as a wild 
dream. But the project is now issued with the sanction 
of a Eoyal Commission, and is found to have met with th& 
enthusiastic approval not only of many of the most emi- 
nent men of science in this country, but also of such cool- 
headed statesmen as the Marquis of Salisbury and the 
Earl of Derby. The subject must be regarded as having- 
passed within the limits of practical discussion when the 
former of these noblemen, the Chancellor of the Uni- 
versity of Oxford, advocates the creation of ' scientific 
deaneries ; ' and when the latter, in his address to the 
students of Edinburgh as their Lord Rector, declares 
that ' more liberal assistance in the prosecution of 
original scientific research is one of the recognised 
wants of our time.' 

It is not the purport of this essay to expand the 
meaning of the above declarations by expatiating on 
the needs of science, or even to elaborate a scheme hy 
which these needs might be satisfied. It is enough 
for the present purpose to assume the supreme import- 
ance of the matter, as evidenced by the mass of testi- 
mony upon Avhich it rests. The chief object of thesa 
pages is rather to attempt to remove one of the diffi- 
culties which appears now to obstruct the practical 



28 ON THE END0W3IENT OF RESEARCH. 

Tealisation of the scheme. The necessity for such an 
attempt has "been partly suggested by the particular 
mode in which Lord Derby himself, in the address 
already quoted, has approached the question. He 
appears to regard it as beyond the possibility of dis- 
pute, that scientific research, as being of national value, 
and in itself unremunerative, ought to be endowed by 
the public. He did not confine himself to this abstract 
assertion, but gave in his own personal adhesion to 
the opinion that the funds for this purpose should be 
directly provided by the State. It is to be observed, 
however, that Lord Derby, with characteristic caution, 
did not insist upon this corollary to his argument. 
The objections to the interference of the State in the 
matter are patent and numerous, though, perhaps, not 
insuperable. It would not have been politic on Lord 
Derby's part to awaken prematurely the suspicions of the 
taxpayer, or to have involved himself in the perplexity 
of ill-considered details. It would have been sujB&cient 
for him to indicate to the class of public benefactors that 
the promotion of scientific study is the one object which, 
at the present day, affords the most promising return 
to their munificence. But he proceeded to take one step 
further ; and it is this further step which supplies the 
main motive for this essay. He suggested, in words 
that immediately follow the passage that has been 
quoted on the preceding page, that much may be ex- 
pected from the modification of already existing endow- 
ments. He did not descend into particulars, but he 



INTENTIONS OF FOUNDERS OF FELLOWSHIPS. 2& 

used language wide enough to show that he looked ta 
the revenues of the Oxford and Cambridge Colleges as 
the source from which some part at least of the required 
funds might legitimately be drawn. He maintained, as> 
an abstract principle, the inherent right of the State to 
divert ancient endowments from one purpose to another, 
but he insisted with equal force upon the inexpediency 
of disregarding altogether the primary intentions of 
founders : * Eespect the founder's object, but use your 
own discretion as to the means ; if you do not do the 
first, you will have no new endowments ; if you neglect 
the last, those which you have will be of no use.' There 
can be little doubt that on this point, as on so many 
others, the common sense views of Lord Derby coincide 
with those of the majority of his countrymen. It can- 
not, at any rate, be a great mistake to accept them as 
furnishing a safe standard of popular opinion, by which 
to gauge the probability whether any scheme of aca- 
demical reform will offend the moderation of the ordi- 
nary Englishman. For the purposes of this essay it 
will be enough if the converse of Lord Derby's propo- 
sition be granted. It must follow a fortiori from his 
premises, that the predominant intentions of founders, 
when they have been wantonly ignored, ought to be 
brought back into operation, so far as is consistent with 
the altered condition of modern circumstances. 

The common opinion with regard to the Universities' 
of Oxford and Cambridge is something of this sort. 
The University is regarded as a kind of indeterminate- 



^0 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

abstraction, necessarily composed of a union of many 
•colleges, whose cliief function is to conduct examina- 
tions and to confer degrees, and wliich may or may not 
1)6 connected -with the duty of instruction. The Col- 
leges are recognised as very definite and powerful cor- 
porations, with buildings and landed estates, which dis- 
iiribute their revenues, in accordance with the regulations 
of their statutes a,nd inviolable prescription, in prizes to 
successful pupils or in subsidies to their teaching staff. 
These popular notions do not greatly disagree with 
existing facts, and the tendency of modern changes 
has been to promote the ideal which they embody. 
The actual course *of academical reform throughout the 
present century has been to augment the efl&ciency of 
the Universities as examining machines, and to add to 
the comforts of the Colleges as endowedboarding-schools 
for adults. There still remain, no doubt, relics of the 
old ecclesiastical monopoly, but its influence now sur- 
vives rather as a tradition and an engrained custom than 
in a code of exclusive regulations. It would be a vain 
effort at the present day to attempt to enlist champions 
of political nonconformity in a parliamentary assault 
upon the proportion of fellowships and the degrees in 
Divinity which are yet confined to the Church of Eng- 
land. University reformers must find a less hackneyed 
sry and a more prominent platform, if they wish to rally 
to their side the best elements in the country at large. 
Clerical restrictions are, indeed, a real grievance at the 
Universities, and they are evidently doomed to be swept 



INTENTIONS OF FOUNDERS OF FELLOWSHIPS. 31 

away as soon as a convenient occasion shall present 
itself ; but tliere is a feeling abroad wbicli is beginning 
to take distinct shape, that the work of reform does not 
merely consist in the removal of meclianical obstruc- 
tions, and that the Universities require to undergo a 
thorough palingenesis before they can recover their 
traditional position in the face of the world. 

It is not necessary on this occasion to criticise that 
conception of a University which has just been given as 
current in England, and as generally received at Oxford 
and Cambridge. It is sufficient to state that it leaves 
entirely out of sight the obligation to advance the 
bounds of knowledge. It may also be observed that 
the petty amount of original work accomplished at our 
great Universities affords ample justification for the 
limited view which is commonly accepted of their func- 
tions. A bare statement of its quantity and quality would 
he in itself the most severe animadversion to which they 
can be exposed. Again, with reference to the large 
sums of money which are annually awarded by the Col- 
leges in the form of scholarships and exhibitions to the 
select boys of our public schools, not much need be said. 
Open competition for these valuable prizes, which has 
now been almost uniformly adopted during the past 
twenty years, has acted as a marvellous stimulus to se- 
condary education in this country. It is hardly going 
too far to assert that the number of first-grade schools, 
and the efficiency of their masters, have been more than 
doubled owing to the operation of this one cause. On. 



32 ON^ THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

the other hand, it may perhaps be doubted whether 
this exceptional influence is not already showing 
symptoms of exhaustion. A growing danger is begin- 
ning to reveal itself in the rivalry of the Colleges, 
which has induced them to outbid one another for 
candidates, and to augment to an extravagant degree 
the pecuniary value of their scholarships. Such con- 
siderations, however, deal with details of subordinate 
importance. In the distribution of the grander prizes, 
or fellowships, lies the supreme question of academical 
reform. Even in the outside world these distinguished 
and comfortable berths attract the largest share of 
attention. They form the unique peculiarity of Oxford 
and Cambridge, and have descended from a remote 
antiquity with their most characteristic features, 
yet unchanged. Fond parents regard them as the 
natural reward which will crown the successful career 
of their sons, to which the winning of a scholarship is 
merely the prelude ; and they guarantee a competence 
for the first struggling years of professional life. With 
somewhat different feelings the university reformer also 
turns towards the fellowships as the central object of 
all his plans. To his eyes they represent the surplus 
wealth of the Universities, which lies ready to his dis- 
posal. He knows that at present they are mere sine- 
cures, with not even ostensible duties attached to their 
possession. At Oxford, out of a nett collegiate revenue of 
270,000^. they absorb about 91,545^. a year ; and at Cam- 
bridgeabout92,820^.outof230,000LThe.valueofafellow- 



INTENTIONS OF FOUNDERS OF FELLOWSHIPS. 33 

ship at eacli University may be taken to vary be- 
tween 200L and 300?. per annum, paid for tlie most part 
in the form of a life pension, terminable on marriage. 
It remains only to add that these prizes are awarded 
in open competition, either by special examination, or 
as an indirect result of a high place in the public exa- 
minations, and that they confer on their holders an 
appreciable amount of dignified authority. Such a 
description reads almost like a chapter from Utopia. 
Happy ought the country to be where higher education 
is encouraged by such an extraordinary stimulus ! 
Happier still the country which can afford to allow such 
vast sums of public money to remain but half utilised ! 

But there is another side to this agreeable picture. 
The nation has of late begun to exhibit signs of discon- 
tent at the small results accomplished by the present 
distribution of the college incomes. In educational 
matters ' payment by results,' a modified form of the 
system of piece-work, has become the orthodox doctrine. 
Mr. Gladstone's Commission has elicited the total sum 
of the endowments at Oxford and Cambridge. It has, 
indeed, been demonstrated that the balance-sheets are 
intelligibly made up, that the landed estates of the 
colleges are not ill-managed on the bursarial method, 
and that no portion of the rents is corruptly expended. 
Perhaps these revelations have proved a disappoint- 
ment to the eager enemies of all endowments, but 
surely the admitted facts of the case afford sufficient 
material for criticism. Practical people are saying to 

D 



34 02i THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

one anotlier tliat tlie most advanced instruction, in 
any subject however unpopular, might be given and re- 
ceived at a far smaller cost. The Universities of Scot- 
land, and the Colleges in London and Manchester, 
manage to do fairly well without this superabundance 
of wealth. It would be too invidious to institute a 
comparison with Germany. 

It is true that no widespread ill-feeling has been 
exhibited against Oxford and Cambridge, which still 
deservedly occupy a large place in the affections of 
Englishmen; and the efficiency of their educational 
machinery has been tacitly recognised. Schemes to 
divert the endowments of certain Colleges to distant 
parts of England, or to utilise them for commercial or 
technical instruction, have fallen flat even in the large 
towns, together with other sections of the Liberal 
programme. It is towards the Universities themselves 
that the nation has turned to make the first move. In 
the meantime, some of the residents at Oxford and 
Cambridge have begun to show signs of uneasiness. 
They commenced by making the notable discovery 
that, despite the apparent bounty of Alma Mater, her 
own alumni are very poorly off. The substance of their 
complaint is, that while they bear the burden of teach- 
ing, the larger proportion of the endowments falls to 
alien hands. In short, the University affords them no 
career. It is beside the present mark to investigate 
the justice of this complaint. It contains, no doubt, 
elements of truth, which have been worked up into a 



INTENTIONS OF FOUNDERS OF FELLOWSHIPS. 35 

large grievance by tliat peculiar spirit of discontent 
which seems to be characteristic of all confined societies. 
It is more to the purpose to remark that this complaint 
forms the basis of a comprehensive scheme of reform 
which demands attention. The present generation of 
residents have hit upon a second discovery, equally 
valuable with the former, that fellowships were never 
intended to be carried away to London and elsewhere, 
and that non-resident fellows are a modern abuse. 
Teaching, they say (and they are themselves tutors), 
is the proper function of a University, and therefore 
the one proper object of academical endowments; 
the incomes of the non-residents, which are now 
wasted, will supply us with precisely the career that 
we need. To this scheme, of which the chief at- 
tractiveness is its simplicity, there is one obvious objec- 
tion. It will fail to satisfy public opinion. It is 
an entire mistake to suppose that non-resident fellow- 
ships are regarded by the outside world as the greatest 
of all possible abuses. Their present conditions of 
tenure may not be all that could be desired, but in the 
abstract they possess many points of recommendation. 
The whole army of middle-class fathers with promising 
sons would exclaim against the abolition of that one 
feature of the university system with which they are 
quite contented. The chance, infinitesimal though it 
be, of a non-resident fellowship, is an incentive to 
study peculiarly calculated to work on the minds of 
Englishmen. This chance, together with the competi- 



36 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

tive examination for tlie Indian Civil Service, may be 
said to have created higher education in this country. 
The prizes can only be vron by some twenty persons a 
year, but the hope stimulates hundreds to exertions 
which they would never have undertaken otherwise. 
Again, the manifest and almost unparalleled fairness 
of the mode of election, as well as its eminent adap- 
tation to its purpose, has rendered prize fellowships 
very popular in the country. The proper men must 
on an average always be chosen, and the choice can 
never be proved to be wrong. A system of competition 
which has no farther object in view than to distribute 
sinecures can hardly be devised, wiser than that which 
allots them after an open examination in subjects 
which have already formed the curriculum of a three 
years' study. It is, moreover, a stroke of policy which 
cannot be surpassed, to avoid all possibility of future 
disappointment, by expecting absolutely no duties 
whatever from the prize-fellow. He can never be 
justly charged with being idle, for he has never pro- 
mised to work. He is merely rewarded extravagantly 
for work done in the past. Such sinecures may be 
economically indefensible, but they are not unpopular, 
and they may be said to effect the minimum of actual 
mischief. The case for teaching fellowships is not 
quite so clear. It will be shown subsequently that the 
general intention of the founders of colleges was not to 
endow university teachers, any more than to endow 
barristers, or schoolmasters, or clergymen. But even 



INTENTIONS OF FOUNDERS OF FELLOWSHIPS. 37 

apart from this question, tlie proposed scheme to aug- 
ment from fellowships the incomes of college tutors 
has special dangers of its own. From the point of 
view of political economy, it is just as mischievous as 
the creation of sinecures. And in practical working it 
would inevitably both do more harm by its partial ope- 
ration, and be exposed to far greater abuses. The un- 
endowed teachers all over the kingdom would have just 
ground for complaint that a few persons, arbitrarily 
selected, not presuming to the character of professors, 
but merely preparing candidates for examinations, 
should be thus artificially protected against all fear of 
competition. To select a competent teacher is an in- 
finitely more difficult process than to permit the most 
able man to prove his superiority in a written examina- 
tion. Even when he is selected, it would be impossible 
to prevent his becoming a drone ; and the evil of such 
a result would be greater than in the other case, just in 
proportion to the importance of the risk. It must also 
be observed that the indefinite multiplication of teach- 
ing fellowships is precisely that change which the 
public are not demanding. The feeling at the bottom of 
the popular discontent is, not that the teaching is in- 
efficient, but that the results are disproportionate to 
the outlay. It would surely be a perverse reform to 
augment an expenditure which is already excessive, in 
order to produce no greater results. 

But after all, the main issue is not a theoretical one 
to be decided according to the fancy of each individual. 



38 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

It is possible to raise the question of university reform 
out of the mists of vague speculation, and to place it 
upon a firm historical basis. Rival parties hitherto 
have been so entirely absorbed each in their own par- 
ticular scheme, that none has found time to appeal to 
the one tribunal whose impartiality cannot be im- 
peached, and which delivers no uncertain judgment. 
The intentions of the founders of fellowships are not 
obscure, nor are the evidences of them far to seek. It 
is, indeed, most significant of the unworthy mode in 
which university reformers have treated their subject, 
that with their own college statutes ready to their 
hands, to which on many points they are yet under the 
obligation of obedience, they have not taken the trouble 
to refer to them. And yet it is in these forgotten 
statutes that a simple solution of this problem may be 
easily discovered. The writer of this essay well recol- 
lects the astonishment with which he lighted upon a 
clause in his own college statutes, to which his attention 
had never been drawn by his brother-fellows. While 
himself engaged in college tuition, he was led by mere 
curiosity to glance through the statutes given by 
Eobert Eglesfield, which are to this day the regula- 
tions which ought to govern the life of a fellow of 
Queen's College, Oxford, except where they have been 
modified by the action of Parliament. It is there re- 
corded in plain language, that the Chaplain of Edward 
the Third's Queen, more than five centuries ago, 
granted his benefaction to his scholars ' with the ex- 



INTENTIONS OF FOUNDERS OF FELLOWSHIPS. 39 

press object that thej might not be driven by poverty 
to occupy themselves with teaching.' This provision, 
which amounts ahnost to a prohibition of that mode of 
applying the good man's charities which is now in such 
high favour, is not repeated in so many words in the 
case of other colleges. One single instance ought not 
to be pressed too far. But the intention which ani- 
mates that provision is to be traced conspicuously 
throughout the statutes of all the other early founda- 
tions. Indeed, the facts are so clear, and have been so 
universally admitted by the few who have enquired into 
the matter, that it is almost to be feared lest bringing 
these facts to the light should involve the charge of 
telling a thrice-told tale. Yet it is certain that the 
general public are not sufficiently acquainted with the 
truth, that the present generation of fellows, whether 
tutors or non-residents, are alike wrongful occupants of 
their comfortable positions, and usurpers when tried 
before the bar of history. It is possible, also, that they 
themselves will not at first be disposed to accept the 
unwelcome intelligence. On aU accounts, therefore, it 
will be expedient at the present time to present a brief 
sketch, based upon extracts taken from the Statutes 
of the Colleges, to show in actual detail what were the 
intentions of the founders when they instituted their 
fellowships. No profound learning or historical re- 
search is necessary for this purpose, and all topics of 
controversial aspect will be carefully eschewed. The 
first University Commission of 1852 published in its 



40 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

Report a magazine of information on the subject, and 
the statutes have now been printed in their original 
Latin. To avoid all appearance either of narrow par- 
tiality or of uncommon erudition, I have purposely 
taken my extracts from the Report of that Commission ; 
and in this form they are the more valuable, as the 
Commissioners nowhere attempt to draw from them 
any conclusions favourable to the endowment of scien- 
tific research, and seem themselves to regard the 
argument from the intentions of the founders as 
of very minor importance. The following historical 
summary covers a period of more than 200 years, dur- 
ing which time all the more important foundations 
were established. It is confined strictly to the Oxford 
Colleges, because it is only of that University that I can 
pretend to have any accurate knowledge. But I have 
no reason to suppose that the general condition of 
things represented is not strictly applicable, with but 
verbal modifications, to the case of the sister Univer- 
sity. 

It is perhaps necessary to commence by stating that 
there existed at Oxford an efficient and complete Uni- 
versity long before the foundation of the first College. 
Indeed, according to the traditions preserved by 
Anthony Wood, who was no enemy of the Colleges, the 
number of students has never since been so great as it 
was in this prse-coUegiate period. However that may 
be, there is abundance of trustworthy evidence to prove 
that in those early days every aspect of academical life 



INTENTIONS OF FOUNDERS OF FELLOWSHIPS. 41 

was already fully developed. The students lodged 
either in the houses of the townsfolk, or more usually 
in private halls. The work of teaching was sustained 
by those who had taken the higher degrees, to whom 
belonged the privilege and the obligation of giving in- 
struction to the younger members. The acquisition of 
the higher degrees was by no means a mere form, but 
required a course of regular study ranging from 
thirteen to nineteen years. But apart from the 
' scholars ' (undergraduates) and the ' regents ' (Masters 
and Doctors), the university residents always, com- 
prised a select body of learned men whose sole care 
was to advance knowledge. Among them may be men- 
tioned as flourishing at this precise epoch the illus- 
trious Eoger Bacon. Amid such an atmosphere of 
learning the first Colleges were founded at Oxford, to- 
wards the close of the thirteenth century. The primary 
object of the founders was by no means either to restore 
a decaying love of knowledge or to supplant the recog- 
nised teaching system of the University, but to support 
poor students through their long academical course by 
the only feasible plan that could bo permanent. The 
colleges were, before everything else, eleemosynary foun- 
dations. It was only by obtaining a royal charter of 
incorporation that endowments could be preserved for 
succeeding generations ; and the monastic societies of 
the regular, as opposed to the secular, clergy afforded a 
pattern that was closely adhered to. Next to their 
charitable attributes, the early Colleges were charac- 



42 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

terised by the obligation of studj, which was enforced 
by the most severe sanctions, and by the minute regu- 
lations of a cosnobitic life. The subject matter for study 
was identical with that demanded by the University for 
its degrees, and the teaching power also was almost 
entirely left to be supplied by the University. It is not 
until the fifteenth century is reached that the endowment 
of teaching fellows is first to be found, and then only 
to a very moderate extent. This innovation coincides 
with the period when the compulsory system of instruc- 
tion by all graduates was falling into neglect, and at the 
same time new branches of learning were coming into 
existence. In illustration of the preceding statements, 
which are a very inadequate summary of the facts, I 
append a series of extracts from the ' Report of the 
Oxford University Commission of 1852,' condensed 
from the original statutes. It has been necessary to 
summarise these extracts, but they have not been 
selected with the object of supporting any particular 
thesis, and they fairly represent the intentions of the 
early founders, as expressed in the statutes of the first 
eight great colleges that were established at Oxford. 
It should further be premised that, however remote 
may be the traditional antiquity of University College, 
the foundation of William of Merton was historically 
the pattern for all future colleges, both at Oxford and 
Cambridge; and that New College again, one hundred 
years afterwards, marks a fresh epoch in the history 
of these institutions. The dates given are uniformly 



INTENTIONS OF FOUNDERS OF FELLOWSHIPS. 43 

those wlien the statutes were finally ratified, and differ 
somewhat from the received epochs of the foundations 
of the several colleges. 

MERTON COLLEGE. 1270 a.d. 

The statutes do not require that the scholars, that is, 
the fellows, should he of any particular standing in the uni- 
versity, nor that they should proceed to degrees, nor that tliey 
should take orders. They are by the original statutes to employ 
themselves in the study of Arts, of Philosophy, the Canons, or 
Theology ; but the majority are to continue in the liberal Arts 
and Philosophy ' till they passed on at the award of the warden 
and scholars,' to the study of Theology, and four or five may 
become students in Canon, or even in Civil Law.^ One is to 
devote himself to Grammar, and to be supplied with books and 
other requisites at the expense of the house. He is to have the 
care of the students in Grammar, and the more advanced in 
years are to have recourse to him ' without a blush,' when 
doubts arise in his faculty. The fellows are to be divided into 
classes of ten or more ; and each class is to be under the care of 
some one of the discreetest of the fellows, who, under the name 
of dean, must see to their proficiency in study, and propriety 
in manners. It appears that, in other respects, the fellows are 
to depend for their learning on the teachers of the University. 
At a later period there were disputations in the college, 
which are strongly insisted upon by Archbishop Laud. — 
Oxford University Commission Report (1862), pp. 193, 194. 

UNIVERSITY COLLEGE. 1280 a.d. 

Pour Masters of Arts should be maintained, and should 
be elected out of such as were believed ' to be most fit to 
1 Statutes, c. 3. 



U ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

advance or profit in tbe churcli.' Of these four one was to be 
a priest, and one the procurator or bursar. They were to 
study Divinity or the Decretals ; and each was to receive 
fifty shillings a year.' — Report, p. 185. 

OEIEL COLLEGE. 1326 a. b. 

There were to be ten scholars or fellows of good character, 
poor, and willing to study Theolog:y ; with a permission, how- 
ever, for three to study Civil or Canon Law. They were to 
stady Logic and Philosophy before Theology. They were to 
lose their fellowships in case they took monastic vows, 
entered into service, obtained a rich benefice, or deserted 
study. By the ordinance of 1330 A.D. the fellows were 
neither to commence nor leave their studies in the university 
without the consent of the college ; and weekly disputations 
were established. — Report, p. 199. 

QUEEN'S COLLEGE. 1340 a.b. 

The object of the founder was, he tells us, to establish a 
Hall, where men might be trained up in the study of Theology, 
' to defend the Catholic faith, to adorn the Universal Church, 
and to tranquillise and instruct the minds of Christian people.' 
It was to consist of a provost and fellows, who were ulti- 
mately to take priest's orders, and study in every term the 
Sentences and the Scriptures for eighteen years ; ' a certain 
proportion, however, were to study Civil and Canon Law for 
thirteen years. A dispensation was to be allowed from these 
duties only in case the university should be removed from 
Oxford. Generally, failure in their exact discharge was to be 
visited with the irrevocable forfeiture of fellowships. The 
fellows were to be entirely relieved from the burden of 

' Smith's Annals of Univ. Coll., pp. 18, 19. 
« Statutes, pp. 10, II. 



INTENTIONS OF FOUNDERS OF FELLOWSHIPS. 45 

teaching. A nnmber of ' poor boys,' bearing a certain pro- 
portion to the number of the fellows, were to be maintained 
at tLe expense of the foundation, and taught grammar, logic, 
and singing, by a grammarian and ' artist,' chosen and paid 
for that purpose.^ They were to be removed from the college 
for neglect in study, but if they attained the degree of M.A, 
they were to have a preference in the election to fellowships. 
— Report, p. 201. 

NEW COLLEGE. 1400 a.d. 

William of Wykeham obtained in 1379 a license from 
Richard II. to found a college ' for seventy scholars studying 
in the faculties.' 

' We desire, moreover, that our scholars, occupied in. diverse 
sciences and faculties may, by their intercourse with each 
other, learn something new every day, and by continual 
advance become better and better, that the spirit of the whole 
multitude tending to the same end may be one, and that, 
through the divine mercy, our colleges endowed with, and 
supported by, men of so many sciences, may the more firmly 
and securely abide and continue for ever in the beauty of 
peace.' ^ 

The college was to consist of a warden and seventy poor 
indigent scholars, clerks, studying the Holy Page, Civil and 
Canon Law, and Philosophy. The college was to support be- 
sides ten. priests, three stipendiary clerks, and sixteen poor 
and indigent boys for the service of the chapel.^ Of the 
scholars, ten must study Civil, and ten Canon Law, but these 
jurists may, under some circumstances, exchange the one 
course of study for the other, and thus the proportion may for 
a time be changed. The remaining fifty are to study the 
Arts, that is to say, Philosophy and Theology ; but two of them 
1 Statutes, pp. 13, 27, 28. ^ ^JfJ. c. 1. » Ibid. c. ]. 



40 ON Tim ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

may devote themselves to Astronomy.^ Two also might apply 
themselves to Medicine. In the election to the fellowships, 
those are to be chosen who will most profit to the honour of 
God, and the advancement of scholastic study. ^ They must 
take priest's orders within a year from the Master's degree, 
or, if jurists, within three years from the degree of Bachelor 
of Civil Law ; if canonists, with ten years of standing ; if 
medical students, within three years after taking the first 
degree in that faculty. One hundred shillings a year are to 
be paid to two or more senior fellows instructing the juniors, 
as well those who are jurists as those who are artists. There 
are to be disputations in the hall or nave of the chapel, in 
Arts, Law, and Theology, which the fellows of the respective 
faculties are to attend. The fellows must become Masters or 
Doctors, according to the faculty to which they belong. They 
are, however, to be examined in the college before they can 
take degrees.3— Ee25orf, pp. 138, 139, 206-210. 

ALL SOULS COLLEGE. 1443 a.d. 

There were to be forty scholars, or fellows, being clerks, 
who were to study without intermission : of these, twenty- four 
were to study the Arts and Philosophy, or Theology, sixteen 
the Canon and Civil Law.* All were to take priest's orders 
within five years after becoming Masters of Arts, except the 
jurist students, who were exempted if they should ' ^pply 
themselves in good earnest to the reading of the Book of the 
Institutions,' and to the other exercises required by the 
university as necessary to the degree of Doctor of Laws.^ 
They are at the time of their election to be between seventeen 
and twenty-six years of age, and to have devoted three years 
to study in the faculty to which they are to belong when 
admitted on the foundation.^ These are to be ' poor and in- 

> Staiiites, c. 3. ^ Ibid. c. 41, 42, 43. ^ Xbid. c. 28, 31. 

* Ibid. c. 1. ' Ibid. c. 16. « Ibid. c. 2. 



INTENTIONS OF FOUNDERS OF FELLOWSHIPS. 47 

digent,' and none are to be cliosen except those 'who pre- 
viously have received sufficient instrnction in the rudiments 
of grammar and in plain song, and who, having the first 
clerical tonsnre, are qualified and disposed for the priesthood, 
are of free condition and born in lawful wedlock, and well 
adorned with good qualities and character, and are anxious 
to make progress in study, and are really making such 
progress ' (in studio 'projicere cupientes etin reipsa prqficientes^ . — 
Report, pp. 216, 216. 



MAGDALEN COLLEGE. 1479 a.d. 

There were to be seventy ' poor and indigent scholars.' 
Of these, thirty called ' demyes ' were to be twelve years of 
age at the time of their election, and might remain until their 
twenty-fifth year.' Their duty was to study Logic and 
Grammar. The other forty, ca.lled 'fellows,' were to study 
Theology, and Moral and Natural Philosophy. Fellowships 
were to be forfeited, inter alia, by absence from the college for 
more than sixty days in the year, or by withdrawal from 
college so as to neglect study. ^ 

Bishop Waynflete also founded three lectureships of Divi- 
nity, Moral Philosophy, and Natural Philosophy, to instruct 
not only the scholars of his own college but the whole 
university ; and the importance which he attached to this 
institution is evident not only from ' his great and glowing 
desire of heart ' to diffuse the knowledge of these sciences, 
but from his express injunction that the lecturers should be 
chosen from the best men that could be procured in the whole 
university, and should succeed to the next vacant fellowships 
in his college without limitation of place or birth. ^ — Ileport, 
pp. 221, 222. 

> Statutes, c. 1. ^ Ibid. c. 20. ^ Ibid. c. 27. 



48 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 



CORPUS OHRISTI COLLEGE. 1517 a.d. 

There were to be twenty 'scholars' or 'fellows,' and 
twenty ' disciples ' or ' students.' 

The prohibitions against non-residence and anything 
which should withdraw the fellows from their studies, are 
multiplied beyond example.^ 

Classical studies are now for the first time mentioned.^ 
There is an apology for the statutes not being written in 
Ciceronian Latin. Greek as well as Latin is to be spoken in 
the hall.^ Grreece and southern Italy are especially mentioned 
as countries from which the college lecturers are to be elected.* 
A three years' journey to Italy is allowed to supersede all the 
statutes respecting residence. The subjects of the college 
lecturers were to be Divinity, Humanity (or Latin) and 
Greek.® Incessant industry in these studies is the main duty 
which the founder inculcates on his college,^ which, by a 
curious metaphor sustained throughout the statutes, is 
called his hive of bees. This object is intended to be secured 
by numerous and minute regulations. The injunctions which 
were inserted in the statutes of Magdalen against canvassing 
for the office of proctor, lest the fellows should be diverted 
from their studies, is here exchanged for an absolute pro- 
hibition to accept the office. Even on feast-days and in 
vacations the time of the students was to be spent ' in writing 
verses and letters, in the rules of eloquence, the poets, orators, 
and historians.'^ Relaxation was only to be allowed in the 
afternoons, and sometimes in the forenoon, ' on rare occasions,' 
with the consent of the college officers.^ These studies and 
exercises were to be superintended by the dean of the college ; 
and instruction was to be provided not only for the inmates 

1 Statutes, c. 1. * Ihid. c. 2. " Ibid. c. 10. « Ibid. c. 21. 

6 Ibid. c. 31. • Ibid. c. 22. ^ Ibid. c. 23. * Ibid. c. 25. 



INTENTIONS OF FOUNDERS OF FELLOWSHIPS. 49 

of the college, but for the whole Tiniversitj, by the three 
lecturers before mentioned, each of whom was to be en- 
dowed with a fellowship free from all restrictions.^ — Report, 
pp. 229, 230. 

In illustration of these extracts, there may be con- 
veniently appended a continuous quotation from the 
Eeport of the Commissioners, which embodies their 
own deliberate judgment concerning the intentions of 
the donors of fellowships. The whole tendency of 
their remarks is the more instructive, because, as is 
well known, their recommendations did not contain 
any proposal for imposing the specific duty of study 
upon the new generation of fellows whom they have 

called into existence. 

• 

' The duty of the fellows, as such, was, as we shall show 
more at length hereafter, not to teach, but to learn ; hence the 
earliest name of this class, . , . scholares.' — Report, p. 134. 

' The colleges were eleemosynary foundations, founded 
from motives of charity, with a rule of life in common, for 
religious purposes and study. 

' The purposes for which the indigent students were thus 
fonned into a community may. be stated generally in the 
words of the elder jurists quoted by Blackstone, to be ad 
orandmn et studenditm. The first purpose was that the 
fellows should offer prayer on behalf of the living and the 
dead.' — Report, p. 139. 

' The second and most important object of colleges was, as 
Blackstone states, " ad studendum." Like hospitals they were 
eleemosynary, and like monasteries, subject to a rule of life ; 
but they differed from both in that neither charity nor 

> Statutes, c. 22. 
E 



50 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

discipline were the main purposes of the foundation, but 
means only to another end. Each fellow was bound by the 
statutes of his college, after completing his course in Arts, to 
proceed in one of the superior faculties, generally that of 
Theology ; a few exceptions were made in favour of Civil or 
Canon Law, a still smaller number in favour of Medicine, and 
two at N^ew College in favour of Astronomy. This course in- 
volved a diligent attendance on the public lectures, and the 
frequent performance of exercises in the schools of the 
university. In the earliest colleges nothing more is required 
in this respect. It was not intended, at the first at least, 
that they should be what all colleges are often called now, and 
what we have seen that they were called more than two 
centuries ago, universities, that is, places in which the 
student was to receive his whole academical education ; but 
they were founded in order to afford a home and sustenance 
to poor students while attending the public teaching of the 
university and performing the exercises which it prescribed. 
To receive, then, and not to give instruction, was the business 
of the fellows of colleges. The founder of Queen's has ex- 
pressly declared that he intends by his benefaction to relieve 
his fellows from the necessity of teaching.^ A system of 
exercises was introduced by statute at Queen's. It assumed 
importance in New College and the subsequent foundations, 
and it was also adopted in those in which it was not imposed 
by statute. In Lincoln College the founder declares that it is 
his wish " above all things " that these exercises should be 
observed for ever. These exercises consisted of disputations 
performed in the college hall several times each week, by 
serdors and juniors, on the subjects which they were re- 
spectively bound to study. They were similar to those per- 
formed in the university, and probably preparatory to them ; 
and deans, or moderators, analogous to the university deans 
* Statutes, p. 13. 



INTENTIONS OF FOTTNDERS OF FELLOWSHIPS. 51 

of Arts and Faculties, were appointed to preside over them. 
A regular establisliment of instrnctors was not originally pro- 
vided in the earliest colleges, but lecturers were in course of 
time introduced in all, and ultimately to such an extent 
that there was little necessity for the students to attend the 
university lectures. At New College a sum not exceeding 
one hundred shillings yearly was ordered by the statutes to 
be paid to certain of the senior fellows for instructing the 
juniors. Very complete establishments of teachers were . . . 
to be provided from the first in some of the later colleges, 
and, for the most part, paid out of the funds of the foundation. 
In Magdalen and Corpus an attempt was made to relieve 
not only the members of the college from the expense of 
teachers, but also the students of the university at large. 
But in all colleges, even in those which aimed at supplying 
instruction to the university, the great majority of the fellows 
were intended to devote their life to study, and not to engage 
in teaching either in the college or in the university.' — Report, 
p. 140. 

It would, only weaken the force of these emphatic 
words to dwell longer upon the historical aspect of the 
question. But it may be as well to guard by way of 
anticipation against a few probable lines of criticism. 
It cannot but be admitted by anyone who will candidly 
investigate the matter, that the fellowship system origi- 
nated in a desire to promote study, and not to promote 
teaching. It may, however, be urged that the attempt 
stands self-condemned by its own failure, and that it 
would be no sound reform to endeavour to resuscitate 
it. This objection appears plausible, but it is really 
exposed to an easy refutation. It is not historically 

E 2 



52 ON TME ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

true that tlie ideal of the old founders failed so com- 
pletely as the present race of fellows would wish to 
make out. There has no doubt been a partial failure, 
owing partly to the benumbing influence which eccle- 
siastical monopoly soon began to shed over the Universi- 
ties, and partly to the spirit of corruption and of sloth 
which is naturally engendered in close corporations. 
But on the other hand it might easily be proved 
that, up to the close of the last century, Oxford and 
Cambridge always took the lead of the nation in 
all intellectual matters. It might also be shown 
(though unfortunately no one has hitherto attempted 
the task) that their preeminence was due, not to the 
efficiency of their instruction, but to the presence of 
the few industrious holders of sinecure appointments. 
Perhaps it does not avail much to state that in their 
favourite studies of Theology, Classics, Mathematics, 
and logic, Oxford and Cambridge hold no mean place 
in the world's history. It was at Oxford that, at the 
period of the revival of Greek learning, Erasmus found 
himself more at home than in any other University in 
Europe ; and the few great names of later English 
scholarship, Bentley, and Person, and Gaisford, were 
silent students rather than energetic professors of the 
modern type. Again, in the domain of philosophy 
proper, it is enough to point to John Locke, whose 
brief life at Christ Church as a student laid the 
foundation of his future fame ; and to the example of 
the virtuous Bishop of Cloyne, the second of English 



INTENTIONS OF FOUNDERS OF FELLOWSHIPS. 53 

pliilosopliers, who could find no more congenial home 
than Oxford in which to spend his declining years. 

But it is more to the purpose to draw attention to 
the neglected fact, that even to the physical sciences 
have college fellowships proved themselves in the past 
to he not unkindly nurses. It can hardly have escaped 
the attention of the reader, that in the extracts from 
the statutes given ahove, Medicine, Natural Philosophy, 
and Astronomy hold a considerable place. It is, indeed, 
only a deplorable ignorance of history which induces 
the majority of people to regard the present revival of 
scientific studies at the Universities as an absolute 
innovation, characteristic of the latter half of the 
nineteenth century. William of Wykeham contem- 
plated that two of his fellows should g.pply themselves 
to Medicine, and two to Astronomy ; while William of 
Waynflete, his worthy imitator, named Natural Philo- 
sophy as one of the three chief subjects of study at 
Magdalen. Nor has the actual fruit been altogether 
unworthy of these liberal designs. It was Thomas 
Linacre, a fellow of All Souls, a man who combined to 
a rare degree classical taste with scientific erudition, 
that first raised the practice of medicine to an honour- 
able status in this country, and induced Cardinal 
Wolsey to found the Eoyal College of Physicians in 
London at the commencement of the sixteenth 
century. Of that learned body Linacre was the first 
president; he was succeeded in the chair by Dr. Caius, 
himself a fellow of Gonville Hall at Cambridge, which 



54 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

he subsequently erected into the College which jointly 
bears his name. In later days, Sydenham, the father 
of the scientific study of medicine, was a student of 
Christ Church, and testified to his intimate connexion 
with that corporation by bequeathing to it his valuable 
library. It ought also never to be forgotten that it 
was among a select band of Oxford fellows and their 
friends that the Royal Society first saw the light. In 
Astronomy, besides the peerless name of Newton, who 
was emphatically an academical recluse, the lists of 
eminent professors, who were not teachers, both at 
Oxford and Cambridge, might be quoted, of whom 
Bradley is only one among many. These examples have 
not been discovered by means of any remote enquiry, 
but are merely jotted down as they suggest themselves 
to one who has no books of reference at hand. Their 
number might be ' indefinitely extended, but as it is, 
they are more than suflScient to demonstrate that in 
every branch of knowledge Oxford and Cambridge 
have fairly held their own ; and that endowed sinecures 
did not turn out a failure until it was announced, with 
a quasi -'parliamentary sanction, that the traditional duty 
of study was no longer to he expected from the fellows. 

Again, it may possibly be objected that the term 
of study contemplated in the early statutes corre- 
sponded rather to the period of school and under- 
graduate education than to the life-long industry of 
grown-up men ; and the notorious instances of boy- 
fellows may be quoted against the view which asso- 



INTENTIONS OF FOUNDERS OF FELLOWSHIPS. 65 

cia,tes tlie original fellowships witli the career of mature 
study which it is now proposed to establish. But here 
also the difficulty, which is supported rather by tradi- 
tion than fact, will be found to vanish on a closer 
enquiry. It is true that we have very little historical 
evidence to prove the age at which the fellows in early 
days were elected, but such evidence as there is does 
not corroborate the received opinion. It certainly 
seems true that exceptional cases of precocity, such 
as that of Cardinal Wolsey, were less rare in those 
days than now, and that they were not regarded with 
any disapproval. But on the whole, it is probable 
that the average age of both scholars and fellows has 
not much varied until we approach the present century. 
The only important change has been, that the initiatory 
degrees in Arts were formerly taken at an earlier period 
of life. So far as the college statutes give us any 
information, they strengthen the view now advanced. 
In the extracts already quoted, it will be seen that 
Chichele, at All Souls, ordained that the fellows ' at 
the time of their election should be between seventeen 
and twenty-six years of age,' and that they were to 
* have previously devoted three years to study in the 
faculty to which they are to belong when admitted on 
the foundation.' At Magdalen also, ' the demyes 
(scholars) were to be twelve years of age at the time 
of their election, and might remain until their twenty- 
fifth year,' and the demyes had a priority of claim, 
though by no means an indefeasible right, to succeed 



56 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

to fellowships. Allowing for the greater latitude 
which did undoubtedly exist four centuries ago in the 
standard of juvenile education, it may be fairly argued 
that the average ages between the extreme limits pre- 
scribed for both fellows and scholars correspond pretty 
closely with the results of modern practice. The real 
issue, however, is determined, not by comparing fixed 
periods of age, which changing circumstances may 
properly modify, but b}' observing the course of study. 
The scholars, wherever they existed, and under what- 
ever name they were known, were to study Grammar, 
Logic, Philosophy, in short, the Arts curriculum of the 
University ; while the fellows were to apply themselves 
to Theology, Law, or Medicine, the higher faculties, in 
which alone the degree of doctor was to be obtained. 
It may be noticed, in passing, that there is nowhere any 
provision which requires a degree in Arts as a prelimi- 
nary to election to a fellowship, and that, as a matter 
of fact, it is only within the last twenty years that 
such a provision has been universally adopted at 
Oxford. As a general rule, however, a fellowship was 
intended to be, and in practice was, a means of support 
for students in the higher faculties. There is some 
doubt as to the necessary duration of these studies in 
primitive times. It will suffice for the present purpose 
to take the period prescribed in the Laudian Statutes, 
which certainly did not curtail the ancient course, and 
■y\rhich, it is important to remember, continued in full 
force until the commencement of the present century. 



INTENTIONS OF FOUNDERS OF FELLOWSHIPS. 57 

According to the code of Arclibislaop Laud, four years 
study was demanded for the degree of B.A., and a further 
period of three years before the degree of M. A. could be 
gained. From this total of seven years started a new 
series. The doctorate of Law, or of Medicine, could be 
acquired in seven years after proceeding M.A. ; but the 
supreme degree in Theology, the holder of which was 
then commonly designated S.T.P., necessitated a longer 
study of eleven years from M.A., or a grand total of 
eighteen years from matriculation. It may be noticed 
that these lengthy periods almost exactly coincide with 
the regulations contained in the statutes of Queen's 
College : — that the majority of fellows (the theologians) 
should study for eighteen years, and a few (the jurists) 
for thirteen years. Nor must it be imagined that these 
regulations could, in the days of Oxford's vigorous life, 
be satisfied by the forms of residence and money payment 
that have been held sufficient in the time of her intel- 
lectual decline. The Laudian code, in fulfilment of the 
earlier university statutes, rigorously enforced attend- 
ance at lectures, participation in periodical disputations, 
and even a system of examinations. Candidates for the 
M.A. degree were required to attend lectures, and 
undergo an examination, in a far wider circle of studies 
than is now demanded, including Astronomy and 
Natural Philosophy. But the careful founders of 
colleges did not content themselves merely with the 
requirements of the academical course. Almost with- 
out exception they imposed on their fellows a system 



58 OJS^ Tim ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

of weekly exercises, in addition to, and not as a substi- 
tute for that course. The duty of study is enjoined 
with earnest reiteration, and sanctioned by the dread 
penalties of perjury. Residence is universally com- 
manded, nor is it anywhere implied that industry 
should cease, even when the highest degree had been 
obtained. In short, nothing could be more alien to 
the whole purport of the original statutes, than that 
the period of study should be limited by the undergra- 
duate course, and that fellowships should then be given 
as prizes for past exertions, or as subsidies for ordinary 
teaching. 

It must be admitted that the intentions of the 
founders are not realised in the Oxford of to-day. The 
ideal of a fellow which has been sketched above, 
engaged in continuous study * and learning something 
new every day,' must appear like a bad dream, to his 
modern successor. But it is securely based upon the 
evidence of history, and it is only within the last 
hundred years that the attempt to put it into practice 
has altogether died out. Surely, however, it is not 
yet too late to endeavour to resuscitate a system which 
originally commended itself to the most experienced 
minds among our forefathers, and which once bore good 
fruit. The old statutes still remain to indicate the path 
of reform, and the money has not yet been irretrievably 
assigned to less appropriate objects. No party in the 
state is interested to support the present order of things, 
which has been the growth of a series of historical 



INTENTIONS OF FOUNDERS OF FELLOWSHIPS 59 

accidents, and in its latest form dates back to only 
twenty years ago. It is, therefore, pecnliarly vulnerable 
to criticism, and will need more than mere modifica- 
tions in detail to commend itself finally to the practical 
sense of England. A simple solution of the difficulty 
is now suggested, by which the interests of science, 
the intellectual life of the universities, and the intentions 
of the founders, may all at once be satisfied. 

To recover the fellowships for their original desti- 
nation ought to be the aim of every academical reformer 
who is content to proceed upon sound principles. 
But it is possible to strain the argument from 
history beyond what modern circumstances can bear. 
The teaching of the past is a good guide, but a bad 
master. Above all men, the reformer of medigeval 
foundations cannot afford to bind himself down to a too 
literal interpretation of the rules prescribed by a dead 
hand. In the words of Lord Derby, 'the main end of 
the founders should be respected, but our own discretion 
must be used as to the means.' It is not enough to 
show that the early colleges were founded to promote 
mature study ; that at Queen's there was an express 
proviso against giving instruction on the part of the 
fellows ; that at Magdalen only three fellows out of 
forty, and at Corpus three out of twenty, were required 
to teach, and even then rather as university professors 
than as college tutors. It must also be admitted that 
the founders of the later Colleges distinctly contem- 
plated education as one of the duties which their 



60 OiV^ TILE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

fellows were paid to perform. It was always, indeed, 
only a subordinate duty, imposed upon a minority and 
intended for the benefit of the few scholars, and not of the 
boarders or commoners, who had not yet come into exist,- 
ence. Even apart from these reasons, which are based 
upon evidence as strong as those which form the main 
argument of this essay, there are other practical causes, 
perhaps equally important, which render it idle to wish 
to restore the ancient proportion between study and 
teaching. It is not only that vested interests, and even 
personal expectations, ought to be respected in any 
endeavour to change the course of the golden streams 
which flow from Oxford and Cambridge. If that were 
all, the question would be a mere matter of time, and 
the coming generations of students might, before the 
close of the present century, recover their monopoly of 
the older endowments. But in dealing with national 
institutions which have such widespread influence as 
the Universities, there are other considerations to be 
taken into the account besides the rights of present 
occupants and the intentions of founders. Neither of 
these can be passed over, but the general interests of 
the Universities, as determined by their present circum- 
stances, also call for attention before any final scheme 
for the redistribution of endowments can be adopted. 
The Colleges have outgrown the limits within which 
alone they can be tolerated as a part of the academical 
constitution. They now overshadow the University 
proper, and impede the exercise of its legitimate func- 



INTENTIONS OF FOUNDERS OF FELLOWSHIPS. 61 

tions. As has been already sliown, it was no part of 
the design of the early founders to supplant the regular 
system of instruction in the University, nor did they 
ever anticipate that their ' indigent scholars ' would 
apply their augmented revenues to buying up all the 
old private seminaries. It is a reform urgently needed 
to restore the University to its old pre-eminence, 
and to use the wealth of the Colleges to break their 
own monopoly. The Bodleian Library, the Botanical 
Garden, and the departments of physical science col- 
lected at the Museum, as well as the new Schools for 
examination purposes, are all demanding a considerable 
outlay of capital ; and the three former require a larger 
permanent endowment than has been yet contemplated 
for them. The needs of the professoriate as a teaching 
body, which are more generally recognised, will also 
present a claim on the college revenues. New chairs 
— not a few — must be founded ; and readerships subor- 
dinate to the professors, and a staff of demonstrators in 
the physical sciences, must be endowed. The Colleges, 
in short, must treat their mother, the University, with 
the same wise generosity that the German State shows 
towards its national Universities ; and a more liberal 
endowment is to be expected in England, in proportion 
to the larger amount of money at our disposal, and the 
greater cost of obtaining equal results in a commercial 
country. 

Perhaps, also, it may be conceded that the class of 
persons who now occupy fellowships have established a 



e2 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

sort of prescriptive ri^M, not onlj for themselves, but 
also for tlieir representatives in the future. Sinecure 
fellows and college tutors may be both alike historical 
abuses and economical blunders, but they may yet 
have their place in a country which can afford to 
indulge its taste for anomalies. Higher education in 
England has been moulded according to the demands 
of the academical curriculum, and has been stimulated 
into its present efficiency by the hopes engendered by 
university premiums. Much yet needs to be done 
before its condition can be regarded with entire satis- 
faction. It would be mischievous to withdraw the 
stimulus at a time when the minor endowed schools 
are still struggling in the pangs of a second birth, or 
before the claims of physical science have won adequate 
recognition. It may be yet further urged, and not 
without a show of reason, that the superfluous wealth 
of the Colleges may usefully be applied to counteract the 
strong and growing tendency on the part of practical 
English parents to interrupt the education of their 
sons, and plunge them prematurely in business or in a 
profession. If the university course is so valuable as 
its friends maintain, it will continue to be worth while, 
so long as this tendency exists, to waste a few thousands 
a year on bribing young men with moderate bounties 
to pass through that course with credit, and on sub- 
sidising with equal moderation those teachers who 
qualify them for success. But it must never be for- 
gotten that this form of endowment is exceptional, and 



INTENTIONS OF FOUNDERS OF FELLOWSHIPS. 63 

altogether subordinate to the main object which fellow- 
ships were intended to serve. It has its place chiefly 
as a concession to popular prejudice, and to motives of 
action which are not the highest. Its justification is 
to be found in the example of the later and less wise 
founders of Colleges; and in the case of the great 
Colleges it may be defended by the argument that a 
superfluity of wealth has accrued, which the original 
benefactors could never have foreseen. 

But with regard to the bulk of the college en- 
dowments, the right mode of appropriation is per- 
fectly clear. The intentions of the founders, the 
teaching of history, and the wants of the present day, 
all point in the same direction. The money should be 
devoted to study, and to study alone ; enforced as a 
duty, and protected by adequate guarantees, but unen- 
cumbered by any obligation to impart common instruc- 
tion. By this one bold and necessary reform the 
Universities of Oxford and Cambridge may once again 
pick up the torch of intellectual progress, which has 
for a while fallen from their hands ; and at the same 
time England, in fulfilling' the designs of her great 
patrons of learning, may regain her place among the 
nations as the chosen home of literary erudition and 
scientific enquiry. 



64 ON TUB ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 



III. 

TEB ECONOMICAL CHARACTER OF SUBSIDIES 
TO EDUCATION.^ 

By Ohakles Edwakd'^^ppieton, D.C.L., Fellow of St. John's 
College, Oxford. 

Endowments may be described from an economical 
point of view as a mode of arresting the action of the 
natural laws of supply and demand, by tlie application 
of wealth to tbe artificial sustentation of particular in- 
dustries or employments. They may be regarded either 
in their ejBFects upon the general interests of the com- 
munity at large, or in their influence upon the produc- 
tion and distribution of wealth. From the latter point 
of view, with which we are alone immediately con- 
cerned, endowments may be classified either according to 
the source from whence they are derived, or according 
to the ohject which they are applied to promote. 

The sources of endowment may be private funds, 
moneys already funded in the hands of the nation, or 
taxation. But from whatever source they may be im- 
mediately derived, endowments must ultimately come 
from that surplus wealth of the community which, if it 



Eeprinted from the Theological Eeview, Jan. 1, 1875. 



i 



SUBSIDIES TO EDUCATION. 65 

were not so employed, would or might be laid out in 
increasing material production. On the other hand, 
there is an appreciable difference in the economical 
effect produced by endowments out of taxation and by 
endowments out of funded resources, whether public or 
private, which is this : first, deriving them from taxa- 
tion is more wasteful than deriving them from already 
funded resources whether public or private, because, 
supposing the amount of money applied in two cases to 
be the same, the amount derived from funded resources 
is equal to the amount applied, whereas for every thou- 
sand pounds applied from taxation, considerably more 
than a thousand pounds has to be taken out of the 
pocket of the tax-payer. 

But this economical preferableness of deriving the 
endowment from private resources to deriving it from 
taxation, sinks into insignificance beside the im- 
mensely greater disadvantage which may accrue to the 
general welfare as distinguished from the welfare of 
production, as a result of private as compared vdth 
public endowment. A private person may, in the exer- 
cise of his absolute right of property, endow any object 
which is not immediately and obviously mischievous. 
He may support in perpetuity or for many generations 
attempts to square the circle or to discover the philoso- 
pher's stone ; or he may subsidise the promulgation 
and defence of his own opinions, as was the case with 
the founder of the Woodwardian Professorship of Geo- 
logy at Cambridge in the 17th century. In these and 



66 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

analogous cases, tlie wealth applied to endowment 
stands the chance of being employed more unproduc- 
tively than if the founder had spent it upon the most 
evanescent personal gratifications. The general intelli- 
gence of the community, on the other hand, although, as 
Mr. Mill has urged, it may fall behind the intelligence of 
the best minds, may be trusted not to employ public 
money upon crotchets or upon occupations which are 
obviously useless. 

It is for this reason that in modern times the en- 
dowments of private benefactors are being taken in hand 
by the state, and re-adjusted to the altered requirements 
of the times. The principle which is usually taken ac- 
count of in these re-adjustments is that of gy pres, i.e. 
of keeping as far as possible to the general intentions 
of the private benefactor, so far as these are capable of 
a wide interpretation, or of imagining what might have 
been his intentions if he had possessed the knowledge 
which we possess, or had been acquainted with the cir- 
cumstances of the time when the conversion of the be- 
nefaction is made. The consideration of the soundness 
of these principles would lead us beyond the province 
of economy proper, into the wider field of political dis- 
cussion. But the topic forms a natural transition to 
the main point in our enquiry, viz. the effect of endow- 
ments, in an economical point of view, upon the objects 
endowed, and through them upon the general condition 
of wealth. 

The object of an endowment, whether public or pri- 



SUBSIDIES TO EDUCATION. G7 

vate, is generally an institution or employment of great 
importance, or believed to be of great importance, to 
tbe general welfare of the community. For our present 
purpose it is not necessary to distinguisli the endowment 
of an institution from that of a service or employment, 
for institutions may be regarded as the provision of 
means and implements of employment. 

We may then classify endowments, in the second 
place, according to the economical condition of the employ- 
ments endowed. These may be : 

1. Wholly self-supporting or capable of being made 
so. 

2. Partially or temporarily incapable of maintaining 
themselves without assistance ; or, 

3. Wholly and permanently incapable of doing so. 
An instance of the first would be a well-established 

branch of trade. According to Adam Smith, too, the 
higher education in universities, and, we may perhaps 
add, to some extent secondary education generally, are 
at present or may be made self-supporting, because the 
class which wants these commodities is at present suffi- 
ciently large and sufficiently wealthy to be able, and 
sufficiently intelligent to be willing, to pay a maintain- 
ing price for them. • 

The principal reasons which Adam Smith gives for 
condemning the endowment of the higher education 
are as follows : 

' In modern times,' he says,^ ' the diligence of public teachers 
' Wealth of Nations, Bk. v. ch. i. 
F 2 



68 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

is more or less corrupted by tlie circamstances whicTi render 
them more or less independent of their success and reputation 
in their particular professions. Their salaries, too, put the 
private teacher who would pretend to come into competition 
with them, in the same state with a merchant who attempts 
to trade without a bounty in competition with those who 
trade with a considerable one. If he sells his goods at nearly 
the skme price, he cannot have the same profit, and poverty 
and beggary at least, if not bankruptcy and ruin, will in- 
fallibly be his lot. If he attempts to sell much dearer, he is 
likely to have so few customers that his circumstances will 
not be much mended. The privileges of graduation, besides, 
are in many countries necessary, or at least extremely con- 
venient to most men of learned professions, that is, to the far 
greater part of those who have occasion for a learned educa- 
tion. But those privileges can be obtained only by attending 
the lectures of the public teachers. The most careful attend- 
ance upon the ablest instructions of any private teachers 
cannot always give any title to demand them. It is from 
these causes that the private teacher of any of the sciences 
which are commonly taught in universities, is in modern 
times generally considered as in the very lowest order of men 
of letters. A man of real abilities can scarce find out a more 
humiliating or a more unprofitable employment to turn them 
to. The endowments of schools and colleges have in this 
manner not only corrupted the diligence of public teachers, 
but have rendered it almost impossible to have any good 
private ones. 

' Were there no public institutions for education, no system, 
no science, would be taught for which there was not some 
demand, or which the circumstances of the times did not 
render it either necessary or convenient or at least fashionable 
to learn. A private teacher could never find his account in 
teaching either an exploded or antiquated system of a science 



SUBSIDIES TO EDUCATION. 69 

acknowledged to be useful, or a science universally believed 
to be a mere useless and pedantic heap of sopliistry and 
nonsense. Such systems, such sciences, can subsist nowhere ■ 
but in those incorporated societies for education whose pros- 
perity and revenue are in great measure independent of their 
reputation and altogether independent of their industry. 
Were there no public institutions for education, a gentleman, 
after going through, with application and abilities, the most 
complete course of education which the circumstances of the 
times were supposed to afford, could not come into the world 
completely ignorant of everything which is the common 
subject of conversation among gentlemen and men of the 
world.' ^ 

Now if we examine this passage attentively, we shall 
find that it contains considerations of very different de- 
grees of cogency. 

In the first place, as to the quidity of university 
education. It has been pointed out by the most recent 
editor of the ' Wealth of Nations,'^ that * at hardly any 
period was the reputation of the University of Oxford 
lower than during the time when Smith studied within 
its precincts ;' and we may add that the passage already 
quoted shows that the great economist did not relish 
particularly the traditional learning even at its best. 
But I think it would be an error to attribute the deteriora- 
tion of education at Oxford at this period exclusively to 
the fact that it was endowed. Various otlier causes 



* He adds, what reads strangely in our days, ' There are no public 
institutions for the education of women, and there is accordingly nothing 
useless, absurd or fantastical, in the common course of their education.' 

2 Preface to Eogers' ed. p. viii. 



70 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

conspired to bring it down, which, admitted of removal 
and have since in great measure been removed. 

First the legislation of the Earl of Leicester and of 
Laud had the effect of ci-eating a monopoly of university 
education in the hands of the Colleges, by compelling 
every student to become a member of one of those 
bodies. And the College Tutor, however incompetent 
(and there was no guarantee for his competence as in 
the case of the University Professor), possessed an ex- 
clusive right of teaching, and of being paid for teaching, 
the students of his own college. Then, again, the ex- 
clusion of all but members of the Established Church 
from the University, also due to Leicester and Laud, 
had a double effect for mischief. It drove away from 
Oxford the energy and ability of a portion of those 
classes of society who inherit the habit along with the 
necessity of striving for a subsistence, and who were to 
a great extent outside of the Church. And it also had 
the effect of drawing off the best minds from the uni- 
versity by the greater pecuniary and social attraction 
of ecclesiastical preferment.^ 

At the present time, on the contrary, although the 
remnants of these evils may still linger in the old univer- 
sities, the sources of them have been entirely cut off. 
The College monopoly has been destroyed, the Church 
of England monopoly has been broken down, and it can 
scarcely any longer be said that the highest minds are 
attracted away from the University to ecclesiastical 

' Wealth of Nations, ii. p. 397. 



SUBSIDIES TO EDUCATION. 71 

benefices. By the amalgamation, too, of many of the 
Colleges for purposes of tuition, a healthy competition 
among the endowed teachers themselves has been intro- 
duced, which, while leaving the less efficient with empty 
benches, fills the lecture-rooms of the most distin- 
guished. And I do not think it can be doubted that, taken 
as a whole, the education which a man can at the pre- 
sent time obtain (for instance) at Oxford, is one of the 
best that the world affords. 

Endowments therefore, if they can be made com- 
patible with the working of the principle of competition, 
do not seem of themselves to be incompatible with the 
highest development of educational efficiency. 

I question also whether Smith's assertion that the 
endowed teacher eliminates the unendowed, would no"^ 
be borne out by facts. So long as to endowment was 
added the College monopoly. University education was 
depressed ; and there was always a considerable number 
of private teachers to whom the students were willing 
to pay, in addition to the fees exacted by the Colleges, a 
much larger fee for supplementary and special instruc- 
tion. Many of these in both universities have been 
known to make very considerable incomes ; though it 
is true that the introduction of competition among the 
endowed teachers is now going far to render this class 
of teachers superfluous. 

We may perhaps go even one step further in favour 
of endowments of the higher education, and specify an. 
advantage accruing from them which is allowed by 



72 Oy THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

Adam Smith, wliilst it is characterised by his commen- 
tator as ' the chief, indeed the only, justification for 
educational endowments.' It is this : that there are 
parts of education which would not be commonly taught 
at all, from the want of which both the individual and 
the public would have suffered, if it had not been for 
endowment. On this point, however, I think a great 
deal may be said on the other side. 

It would seem to follow from these considerations 
that much of the deterioration in the quality of univer- 
sity education, which Adam Smith attributed solely to 
the fact of its being endowed, may be shown to be due 
to other causes which have admitted of actual removal. 
And it may also be said that the tendency which he 
charges upon endowments of maintaining obsolete 
methods or of falling behind the advance of knowledge, 
although true of his own time of study at Oxford, is 
only in exceptional cases true of the present time. In 
modern Oxford — I speak of Oxford because I know it, 
but without wishing to do otherwise than assert the 
same of Cambridg^e — the old scholastic learning^ which 
it has inherited from the period of the revival of letters, 
is now being penetrated by the most advanced methods 
and the most recent discoveries of the great schools of 
Germany. It was one of the first universities in Europe 
which founded a Chair for the new Science of Com- 
parative Philology; whilst in the department of Physical 
Science it has recently spent not less than 100,000Z. on 
a Museum of Natural History ; and I believe that I am 



1 



\ 



SUBSIDIES TO EDUCATION. 73 

riglit in stating tliat its laboratory and apparatus for the 
study of Physics are unsurpassed either in this country 
or on the continent. Nor if we go back to a remoter 
period do we find the universities behind the age. It 
should never be forgotten that it is to a body of Oxford 
students that the Royal Society owes its existence ; and 
such men as Boyle and Maskelyne and Ray, Harvey, 
Eadcliffe, and Sydenham, Goddard, Hartley, and New- 
ton, no less than Bentley, Porson, or Gaisford, were at 
one or other of the old universities. If we wish to 
take a true view of what, to say the least, is compatible 
with educational endowment, it is but right to regard 
these instances side by side with such negative ex- 
amples as those of Locke or Gibbon or Adam Smith. 

But when all has been said that can be said in 
favour of endowments of the higher education, their 
purely economical aspect remains to be considered, and 
this cannot be said to be in their favour. 

I will summarise very briefly what seems to me to 
be the effect of these endowments upon the production 
of wealth. 

And, first, we may lay down the acknowledged 
maxim of economy, that the artificial sustenta.tion of an 
employment which is or m^ay he made self-supporting, is a 
wasteful diversion of luealth from productive purposes. 

The question then is, whether the higher education 
is or may be made self-supporting? I think the an- 
swer is, that it can, and for this reason. A man who, 
after having been at one of the old universities, enters 



74 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

upon a practical profession, lias a distinct advantage in 
the race of life over one who has not received such a 
previous discipline. This advantage is partly due to the 
tact 'Jiat in a large number of instances he has actually 
acquired a wider and surer grasp in dealing with diffi- 
culties both theoretical and practical, and partly to the 
fact that in a still larger number of cases he is gene- 
rally believed to have done so. His power of earning 
money, with the same expenditure of trouble, is greater 
upon the whole than is his competitor's power of earn- 
ing who has not been at the university. I am speaking 
of course only of those persons whose preliminary 
training at school enables them to engage in the 
higher education, not of those who take what is at 
present called a ' pass ' degree. If now we take the 
mean average cost of an university education, and re- 
gard that as the investment, and the difference be- 
tween what a well-disciplined university man and any 
other man of equal natural capacity can get for his 
labour, as the dividend, the result is an interest on 
oatlay much greater than can be obtained in any other 
investment of equal security.^ It may here be objected 
that this income does not accrue to capacity and attain- 
ment alone, but must be earned by labour. We must 
theiefore considerably reduce the amount earned which 
can be placed to the. account of mere capacity. But if 

' A Lusiness man in the city of London gave his opinion some time 
ago that a first class at Oxford is regarded as •worth about 600Z. a year, 
and a second class abunt 400i. 



SUBSIDIES TO EDUCATION. 75 

we do so, it is only fair to reduce the total expense of 
the university education by the expenses of lodging 
and maintenance ; and the result is again an interest 
on outlay out of all proportion to that of any other 
equaljy safe investment. So that we might very 
greatly increase the outlay on the education, which 
would not of course necessarily involve any additional 
expenditure on the item of living, and the investment 
would still be so profitable an one, in a merely 
pecuniary point of view, for it to be the interest of the 
parent to make it ; quite apart from the additional 
motive which influences a professional man — and it is 
from this class that the universities are mainly re- 
cruited — I mean the inclination to give his sons the 
same sort of start in life as he had himself. 

Compare now, in the second place, the fees which 
are usually accepted for tuition, with the fees which 
are paid to the members of all the other liberal profes- 
sions. Compare them, for instancy, with those of a 
medical practitioner, or an architect in moderate prac- 
tice, and you will find that they are about one-third. 

And if we compare the emoluments received by the 
most eminent teacher at a university with those of the 
most eminent physician or architect or barrister, or 
again with the income of a judge or any first-rate 
public servant, the difference is so great as to place the 
one altogether out of proportion to the other. The in- 
come of an endowed teacher at the universities is, in- 
cluding that derived from his endowment as well as 



76 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF EESEARCR. 

that derived from fees, about equal to tlie salary of a 
clerk in a Government office, i.e. it ranges from about 
800?. to about 1,200?. a year. 

This depreciation in the vrages of one of the most 
important industries which can exist in a civilised 
country, is almost entirely due to the operation of en- 
dowments ; to the fact that, by reason of his bounty, 
the privileged teacher can undersell the unprivileged. 
And this depreciation in the wages of education tells 
with great severity upon such an institution as Univer- 
sity College, London, where there are no endowments 
or but inconsiderable ones. 

Vv'hat, then, would be the effect of withdrawing the 
old endowments of study and research which during 
the decay of learning have gradually been appropriated 
to education ? Obviously this. The wages of the uni- 
versity teacher would at once rise to the level to which 
they are now bi'ought up by endowments; and we have 
shown that it is thQ 'pecuniary interest of the parent to 
pay this advance in the price. But the wages of the 
most eminent instructors would rise far above this level,* 
owing to the same causes which raise the emoluments 
in the higher grades of any other profession. And 
from these consequences a number of incidental advan- 
tages would flow. 

(a) The employment of the academical teacher 

' It is related of the eminent Savigny, that he only consented to 
become a Minister of State on condition that the salary of the Ministry 
was made equal to that which he had received from fees as Professor. 



SUBSIDIES TO EDUCATION. 77 

would become a recognised profession, able to compete 
with other liberal professions ; able to attract and, 
what is impossible now, to retain permanently its fair 
share of the best minds of the country. 

\h) The increased dearness, too, of the commodity 
supplied, would tend to deter from going to the univer- 
sity that large class of persons whose preliminary train- 
ing has been so imperfect as to render them incapable 
of engaging in the higher studies. I do not think it 
can be contended that money spent upon what is called 
a * pass ' career is, in any sense of the word, a produc- 
tive form of expenditure. On the contrary, under the 
name of education, it is simply the purchase of three 
years' more or less agreeable residence at an expensive 
club. 

(c) Nor is this all. The rise of the price of educa- 
tion to its natural level would give it an increased 
value in the eyes of the student and operate as a mo- 
tive to exertion. If you engage the services of a 
solicitor or a physician, you never think of allowing 
them to be wasted by neglect to avail yourself of them, 
because you know that, whether you avail yourself of 
them or not, you will have to pay their full price. 
And this motive would operate even in the un- 
formed character of a young man. But if the services 
can be obtained gratuitously or at an inappreciable 
price, the inherent indolence of human nature will lead 
a man to play fast and loose with them with much 
greater recklessness than he otherwise would. 



78 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

Nor can it be maintained that any purchaser is ag- 
grieved by the rise of the price of a commodity to its 
normal value. A man cannot get his house, nor his 
food, nor his clothes, at a price below their normal value, 
and he adjusts his expenditure according to his earning 
capacity. Then, it may be asked, why should he be 
able to buy one of the highest services which can be 
rendered to him on a different principle ? The rise of 
the price of the higher education to its normal value, 
again, would not exercise a prohibitory effect^ upon 
those parents whose sons are likely to profit by receiv- 
ing it, but only upon the parents of those to whom it 
is likely to be useless. If it exercised any effect upon 
the former, it would be to stimulate the productive 
energy of the parent, in order that he might be in a 
position to purchase so valuable a commodity. 

Nor, once more, must it be supposed that the cheap- 
ening of the higher education by endowment has really, 
in the long run, had the effect of placing it within reach 
of the poor. Quite apart from the exceptional causes 
which have been mentioned as giving a class character 
to English university education, there is the general 
tendency, which I perceive has arrested the attention 
of the Endowed Schools Commissioners,''' that the endow- 
ments intended for the poor become in the course of time 
m.onopolised by the rich. The old eleemosynary admi- 
nistration of endowments at the colleges which existed 
previously to the University Commission of 1852, was 

- Cf. Re;port of Schools Inquiry Commission, p. 98. * Seaport, p. 148. 



SUBSIDIES TO EDUCATION. 79 

shown by experience to run to waste, in that their effect 
was to bring a large number of persons to the Univer- 
sity, and pay them for staying there, whose preliminary 
training had not rendered them capable of receiving 
the higher in struction with profit. The result was a very 
general deterioration in the character of the education. 
The effect of putting these endowments up to competi- 
tion brought about by that Commission, has tended, on 
the other hand, to render them the perquisite of those 
well-to-do classes who can afford a previous training at 
the first-rate public schools. 

What, lastly, is the economical result of saving the 
expense of education to the well-to-do classes who now 
enjoy the old endowments? Does it tend to increase 
the total wealth of the community or to diminish it ? I 
think we can hardly avoid the conclusion that it tends 
to diminish it. For if a person who is capable of pur- 
chasing the commodities which are necessary to him has 
some of these commodities supplied to him at the public 
expense, the money which is thus saved to him, or at 
least a portion of it, will tend, upon the whole, to flow 
into channels of luxury, i.e. to be unproductively ex- 
pended. 

If the foregoing considerations, then, be at all correct, 
we seem to be driven to the general conclusion that 
endowments of the higher education are economically 
of the sam^e nature as bounties to commerce, and while 
presenting all the disadvantages of these, possess in 
addition not a few peculiar drawbacks of their own ; 



80 ON THE ENDOIVMENT OF RESEARCH. 

and it may confidentlj "be expected that, as the better 
appreciation of the laws of production has led to the 
withdrawal of the bounties, so it will in the end lead to 
the diversion of the endowments of university education 
to more productive purposes. 

II. Turning now for a moment to secondary educa- 
tion in middle-class schools, I would call attention, in 
the first place, to some of the generalisations as to the 
effects of endowments whichthe enquiries of the Endowed 
Schools Commissioners have led them to make, and 
which may be fruitfully compared with those which we 
have already arrived at with respect to the endowment 
of university education. I will summarise them in as 
few words as possible : 

1. ' In the endowed school there is in very many 
cases no great motive to exertion either on the part of 
the trustees or the master.' ^ 

We may remark, in the case of secondary instruction, 
the absence of that competition between the endowed 
teachers themselves, which we have adverted to as 
having restored the efficiency of the education at the 
old universities. The secondary school is too much 
isolated from other institutions of its own class to come 
into competition with them, as the different colleges 
may do which are located within the precincts of a 
single university town. On the contrary, the only com- 
petitors it can have are the private schools of the 
immediate locality. 

» Report, p. 105. 



SUBSIDIUS TO EDUCATION 81 

2. On this point the Commissioners saj that ' an en- 
dowed school, notwithstanding its want of efficiency, 
still occupies the ground, and is a perpetual discourage- 
ment to any attempt to erect another.'^ 

8. Thirdly, they remark upon the want of capacity 
of adaptation to new requirements.^ 

This, it will be remembered, is one of the charges 
brought by Adam Smith against the university educa- 
tion of his time. 

4. Fourthly, they notice the tendency of the endow- 
ments to get into the hands of those who are abundantly 
able to pay for their education.^ 

5. And lastly, as to the depreciation of practically 
gratuitous education in the eyes of parents, they say : 
' Education is eagerly sought and its cost willingly paid- 
in some places, when it is offered in full efficiency and 
under circumstances favourable to its acceptance ; while 
in other places, education unsuited to the demand, 
although offered for nominal fees or even gratuitously, is 
depreciated in value and neglected.' * 

This is also curiously coincident with some of the 
conclusions which we have already arrived at with re- 
spect to the probable effects of disendowing university 
education. 

On the other hand, they say : * It is not difficult to 
see that the operation of the commercial principle of 
supply and demand must necessarily fail in two cases ; 
it fails when the purchasers demand the wrong thing, 

» Report, p. 107. ^ Ibid. p. 106. = Ibid. p. 148. ♦ Ibui. p. 98. 

G 



S2 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

and it fails also when they are incompetent judges of 
the right thing.' ^ 

Whether these two difficulties can be got over, and 
whether they constitute an argument in favour of the 
endowment of secondary education which will counter- 
balance its economical disadvantages, is perhaps 
scarcely a question coming within the range of a purely 
economical discussion. But the inference to be drawn 
as to the economical effect of endowments of the 
secondary education is the same as before. 80 far as 
they promote the production of a worthless article, so 
far as they discourage private enterprise, so far as they 
have a tendency to be absorbed by those who are able 
to pay a maintaining price for education, they are 
economically unsound and run to waste. 

III. The '^ase of endowments for primary education 
is somewhat different, for two reasons. First, the 
maintenance of primary education is, in a sense which 
is in no way applicable to secondary and the higher 
education, a condition of public security, and, as such, 
as necessary a condition for the production of wealth 
as the maintenance of justice and police ; and secondly: 
the present rate of wages for manual labour is not, at 
least in all classes of industry, sufficient to pay a main^ 
taining price for it ; in other words, it falls into th< 
second class in our division of the objects of endow- 
ment, those, viz., which are partly or temporarily in^ 
capable of maintaining themselves. 
» Report, p. 306. 



SUBSIDIES TO EDUCATION. 83 

So far too, it may be added, as the efficiency of the 
manual labourer is increased by the general improve- 
ment of his intelligence, the expenditure of public 
money does redound directly to the increase of the 
general material wealth of the community. 

On the other hand, I may quote an opinion which 
has recently been expressed by the accomplished Mrs. 
Fawcett,' in a letter to the Times of December, 1870, 
and which is well deserving of attention. Mrs. 
Eawcett objects entirely to a rate for the support of 
primary education, on the ground that every parent, 
not a pauper, is as much bound to provide for the edu- 
cation of the children he brings into the world, as to 
provide them with sufficient food and clothing to keep 
them alive. And she sumjnarises her objections to free 
education as follows : 

' 1st. Compulsion is justifiable only on the assumption 
that primary education is as necessary to a child's mental 
welfare as food and clothing are to its bodily welfare. This 
assumption affords no ground for making education free. 

' 2nd. What is called free education is not really free. It 
is in reaHty an extravagant mode of paying for education ; 
the operation of which is unjust, and tends to discourage pro- 
vidence with regard to marriage. 

' 3rd. The incidence of the education rate would most 
probably be borne chiefly by the working classes ; it would 
therefore be more to their interest to pay for their children's 
education directly than indirectly. 

' Free Education in its Economic Aspects: Essays and Lectures, 
Political and Social, by H. Fawcett and M. G. Fawcett (Macraillan, 1872), 
pp. 50-67. 

a 2 



84 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

' 4th. Free education would be an immense extension of 
the system of out- door relief.'^ 

It would take a paper as long as the present one to 
do full justice to these weighty considerations ; but if 
the general conclusions we have drawn with respect to 
the effect of endowments on the higher grades of edu- 
cation be at all correct, it would appear at least to fol- 
low that, if at any future time a re-adjustment of the 
present relations of capital and labour should have the 
effect of increasing the wages of the working classes to 
an extent which would render them both able and 
u^enerally willing to pay a maintaining price for the 
education of their children, the continuance of the 
system of endowing that education out of public moneys 
would, under those circumstances, involve a waste. 

There is one other point in connexion with the en- 
dowment of education which may be briefly - touched 
upon before leaving this subject. I mean, what is 
sometimes called ' the ladder of endowment,' whereby 
persons are enabled by a system of scholarships and ex- 
hibitions to rise from primary to secondary, and from 
the higher grades of secondarj^ to the highest forms 
of liberal or scientific education. Now from a social 
and political point of view, it may no doubt be argued 
with much force that a variety of advantages accrue to 
society at large from drawing up the elite of every class 
of the community to the top. Yet from an exclusively 
economical point of view, this expedient may admit of 

' Free Education in its Economic Aspects, p. 64. 



J 



SUBSIDIES TO EDUCATION. 85 

grave question. For it must be remembered that the 
child of a working man or of a small tradesman, whose 
abilities and application have enabled him to rise to the 
level of the highest education, does not as a rule return 
to the employments and surroundings of his parents. 
And the consequence of this must be, that the various in- 
dustries at the lower end of the social scale, — those, too, I 
may add, which are directly concerned with the produc- 
tion of material wealth, — will be continually starved of 
their best minds, and be thereby impaired in their effi- 
ciency and productive power ; and the classes which are 
engaged in them will be less able to raise themselves in 
the social scale, as classes. 

If this be true, the further question remains. Can 
the social advantage of raising the best minds of every 
class of the community to the top, be regarded as in any 
way economically a set-off to the detriment accruing to 
the particular industries from which they are with- 
drawn ? Would not the working classes be able to do 
much more for the economic progress of the community, 
even than they do at present, if they could keep their best 
men amongst them, iilstead of being helped by public 
money to surrender them into the ranks of classes who 
do not share their feelings, and to whom they are at 
present in temporary opposition ? 



ON THE ENDOWMENl OF RESEABCn 



IV 

TRE ENDOWMENT OF BE8EABCH A PBODUCTWE 
FOBM OEyi^XFENBITJJBE} 

By Charles Edwakd Appleton, D.O.L., Felloiv of St. John's 
College, Oxford. 

The relations of scientific research to the production 
and distribution of wealth, form the subject of a chapter 
in Political Economy which has yet to be written. All 
that can be done in the present paper is to mark out 
some of the lines of enquiry which the consideration of 
this important topic suggests, and to draw those more 
obvious conclusions which seem to be derived from the 
application to it of well-known and established prin- 
ciples. 

In the first place, then, the investigation of truth, 
considered as a vocation, is an instance of that class of 
industry whose economical condition seems to be one of 
inherent and permanent incapability to maintain itself.' 
The reason of this is, that knowledge, which is its pro- 
duct, has no marketable value apart from its applica- 
tions to the useful arts or to education. When a man 

' Reprinted, with additions, from the Fortnightly Bevtew, October 1874. 
« See p. 67. 



AS A PRODUCTIVE FORM OF EXPENDITURE. 87 

has made a discovery in science lie has the choice of 
keeping it to himself or of publishing it. The former 
case we need not now consider ; but if he publishes it, 
what may have cost him years of labour can be bought 
for a few shillings. It is true, that by publishing, he 
multiplies his product ; and if he could find a demand in 
the whole or a large portion of the population, he might 
make his publication profitable ; but not at all to an 
extent that would remunerate him for the time and ex- 
pense which he had devoted to making his discovery. 
In any existing community the only demand for new 
knowledge, in its raw state so to speak, is to be found 
in the small body of students like himself, who labour 
under precisely the same difficulty that he does, viz., 
that they are devoted to an unremunerative occupation. 
Nay, more, it is not even to the whole body of the 
scientific men of the country that he can look for his 
demand; for, as study becomes more specialised, it is 
only a very small fraction even of these whose interest 
it is to buy his discovery. Under these circumstances, 
the publication of researches becomes not only not a 
source of remuneration but a loss. The investigator is 
not only not paid for his observations, but may actually 
himself have to pay in the first instance for making 
them known. Compare this case with that of an artist, 
who spends several years in painting a picture. When 
it is done, he can sell it for a price, which is more 
than sufficient to keep him during the same number of 
years in comparative affluence. But it is scarcely con- 



88 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH 

ceivable that anj alteration, however radical, could be 
made in the arrangements of society, which could 
render the labour of scientific discovery of any appre- 
ciable pecuniary value to the man engaged in it. 

Nor can he hope for any remuneration arising from 
its application to material arts or to education. In the 
first place, the application may not be made till after 
his death; and in the second, if it be applied during 
his life, a fortune may be made by the patentee and a 
comfortable income by the educator, but not one frac- 
tion of this can by the most ingenious contrivance be 
made to flow back into the lap of the original discoverer : 

Sic vos non vobis, melKficatis apes ! 

As a consequence of this inherent inability to main- 
tain itself commercially, the pursuit of knowledge has, 
since the appropriation of its endowments at the Uni- 
versities by the higher education, supported itself by con- 
nexion with some other occupation. This is the reason, for 
instance, why almost all the learning in this country has 
been for the most part, since the Reformation, in the 
hands of the clergy of the Established Church ; i.e. of 
persons who received a public salary and maintenance, 
to which duties of an indeterminate character were at- 
tached. If a benefice was not actually enjoyed, it 
might well be with certainty looked forward to by any 
clergyman of moderate literary distinction; and there 
is no doubt that the decay of zeal in the ministry, 
which has characterised certain periods in the history 



AS A PRODUCTIVE FORM OF EXPENDITURE. 81> 

of the ChurcTi of England, however much to be de- 
plored in itself, has not unfrequently provided the 
opportunity for learned and fruitful leisure. Some 
thirty years ago a book was written by an anony- 
mous author called the 'Fruit of Endowments; being 
a list of upwards of two thousand authors who have, 
from the Reformation to the present time enjoyed pre- 
hendal or other non-cure endowments of the Church of 
England.' (London : McDowall, 1840.) No doubt the 
names of many of the books put down to the credit 
of the Church may now raise a smile ; and many more 
would seem to indicate not so much learning or re- 
search as the love which theologians proverbially bear 
to one another. Still, making every allowance for the 
character and aims of some of the erudition displayed, 
we find here evidence of real study and of the dili- 
gent use of leisure. It is from a survey like this, 
embracing not only the fellowships at the universities 
but also the benefices of the Church, that we can best 
estimate the working of sinecure endowment. If we 
take the fellowships alone, the evidence seems to tell 
against such endowments ; because, as it can be shown 
statistically, the universities were starved of their 
best minds by the superior attractiveness of Church 
preferment. But if we take the two classes together, 
bearing in mind the operation of this tendency, we 
shall, I think, come to the conclusion that the Church 
afforded a real support to learning in the seventeenth 
and eighteenth centuries. 



i)0 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH 

In the present century, the increase of zeal in the 
performance of ministerial duties and other causes have 
had the effect of driving the pursuit of knowledge into 
the ranks of the laitj, who have no comfortable Church 
benefice to enjoy or to look forward to ; and the pro- 
lession of knowledge has therefore been thrown for 
support upon education, or it has gone into service to 
commerce, or it has been sustained by private fortune. 

It is a melancholy fact that the connexion of the 
profession of learning and science with that of the 
higher education in this country, owing in large measure 
to the great improvements which have been made in the 
latter, and the engrossing character of the duties which 
it imposes, has gone far to choke the spirit of original 
investigation altogether. It too often happens that 
when the opportunities for research are snatched from 
the duties of an educational position, the qualities and 
habits which have been developed in the teacher during 
the years of drudgery which he has had to go through 
before attaining a position affording any leisure for 
original work, are such as to be a hindrance rather 
than a help to serious research. It often happens, too, 
that when the coveted opportunity is at last reached, 
the time of life when new habits can be formed, and the 
intellect is fresh and enterprising, has gone by. A 
great deal, of course, depends upon temperament, and 
upon the degree in which duties of a public nature 
consume the available store of nervous power. In a few 
cases, a little research can be done ; in the majority of 



AS A PRODUCTIVE FORM OF EXPENDITURE. 91 

probably the best instances, all that is possible to the 
teacher is to keep himself abreast of that which is being 
accomplished by others ; in too many, it is to be feared, 
that even this is rendered impracticable by the exi- 
gencies of continual publicity, and the result is the rank 
luxuriant growth, to use the expression of a recent 
German writer, ' of a scientific proletariate which lives 
only from hand to mouth/' ' Even among our greatest 
men of science in this country,' says Professor Tait,'' 
' there is comparatively little knowledge of what has been 
already achieved, except, of course, in the one or more 
special departments cultivated by each individual.' 
But apart from the lack of time and opportunity, the 
very habit of exposition, developed by an educational, 
calling, has a tendency to bring into prominence the 
element of form and phrase rather than that of substance, 
and to induce the illusion that, because we are increas- 
ing the knowledge of our hearers, we are therefore 
adding to the stock of knowledge in the world. The 
growth of the popular and rhetorical element — die 
Phrase in der Wissenschaft, as it has been called— is 
almost always a symptom that the work of investigation 
is standing still; for the diversion of the scientific in- 
tellect from its true aim has as certainly the effect of 
diminishing its intensity as the disuse of any bodily 



' ZoUner, Ueber die Natur der Cometen. Leipzig, Engelmann. 1872. 
"Vorrede, p. Ivi. 

^ Address to the Mathematical and Physical Section of the British 
Association at Edinburgh. 



92 ON Tim ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH 

organ produces in time its atrophy and degeneration. 
Apart from the coarser developments of sensationalism, 
to which, whenever they appear, the more serious scien- 
tific men are not slow to call attention, there is not 
wanting evidence that the popularisation of science, in 
the best and most necessary meaning of the word, is in 
this country beginning largely to take the place of 
original study and investigation. In Oxford, where 
the business of education has been brought to a pitch 
of perfection almost uneqaalled elsewhere, the actual 
additions to knowledge that are made in the course 
of a generation in the old traditional studies of Latin 
and Greek Philology are, as compared with what is 
done in Germany, almost inappreciable. Perhaps 1 
may be allowed to speak with some authority on this 
point, as it so happens that the whole learned and scien- 
tific literature of England and the Continent comes in 
some form or other regularly before me year by year. 
And I do not think that I am doing England an in- 
justice when I say that, whilst the annual product in 
Germany of original investigations in the sphere of the 
classical languages and literatures amounts to some- 
thing like two hundred distinct woi^ks, those produced 
by England in the same time and in the same province 
do not exceed a dozen. I may quote also, a similar 
opinion expressed recently by Dr. Frankland in his 
evidence before the Royal Commission on Scientific 
Instruction, with respect to the comparative amount of 



AS A PRODUCTIVE FORM OF EXPENDITURE. 93 

original work contributed by England and bj Germanj 
respectively to chemical science. He says : ^ — 

' A year or two ago I took the trouble to look out in 
regard to chemistry the number of original investigations 
made in each country during one year. . . . In the year 1866, 
which was the year I enquired, 1,273 papers were published 
by 805 chemists. Of these Germany contributed 445 authors 
and *777 papers ; France 170 authors and 245 papers ; the 
United Kingdom 97 authors and 127 papers. I may men- 
tion, however, speaking exclusively of chemistry, for I have 
not gone into the other sciences, that as far as research in 
Great Britain depends upon our scientij&c training, our case 
is much worse than appears from this comparison, because a 
large proportion of those papers contributed by the United 
Kingdom, were the work of Germans residing in this country, 
but who had not been trained in this country.' 

From the schedule of original researches executed 
in the laboratory of the Royal College of Chemistry 
since the year 1 845, and handed in by Dr. FranMand 
to the Commission, it appears that out of one hundred 
and forty specified researches, no less than seventy 
were made by foreigners. That is to say, Germany not 
only produces four and a half times as many investi- 
gators in chemistry, and six times as many researches 
in a year as we do, but actually produces half the number 
of researches which in this calculation are credited to 
this country. 

I may illustrate the truth of these comparisons by 
an analysis of the original works published in the west 

' Eeport of Evideoice, p. 37 i. 



94 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH 

of Europe during a period taken at random, the first 
fortnight of September, 1873. 

In Physical Sciences I find that thirty-one treatises, 
almost all of them exhibiting special and original re- 
searches, were published. Of these nineteen are German, 
eight French, two Italian ; while England is represented 
by Thorpe's ' Manual of Quantitative Chemical Analysis,' 
and by a popular work on the moon. 

In History, the proportion is much more favourable 
to England, thanks to the practical endowment of his- 
torical research at the Eolls Office. Of fourteen books, 
four are German, four English, two French, and four 
belong to various other nations. 

In Philology, the boast of our old universities, out 
of ten books, Germany produces nine, of which six are 
on the classical languages ; while England is repre- 
sented by a reprint of a book of the last century. 

It may be objected to the general tenor of these 
remarks, that it is the educating class in Germany — 
the masters in the higher schools as well as the pro- 
fessors and lecturers at the universities — which exhibits 
this remarkable fertility in making additions to know- 
ledge. That is true ; but it is none the less true that 
experience and statistics prove that, probably owing to 
some differences in the national character, the same 
class in England is as singularly sterile; and one of the 
consequences of this is, that a large portion of the most 
recent knowledge in almost all branches, which is dis- 
tributed through educational channels in this country. 



AS A PRODUCTIVE FORM OF EXPENDITURE. 95 

is knowledge imported from abroad. Original research 
in England is either the privilege of persons of fortune, 
or it is performed in the intervals of business or pro- 
fessional labour other than education. 

This brings me to consider the third means of main- 
tenance which original research, in default of endow- 
ment, has to relj upon in this country — I mean the 
attachment of scientific men to commercial enterprise 
as advisers of large firms, or as themselves patentees. 
On this point, too. Dr. FranMand's evidence supplies 
us again with valuable information. He says :^ 'An 
analysis of the schedule which I have put in [of dis- 
tinguished students of the Eoyal College of Chemistr}--, 
whose subsequent positions are known], shows tbat 
forty-five professors and teachers and eight amateur 
chemists have emanated from the college, whilst the 
remaining of the three hundred and fifteen students 
whose history has been traced, have devoted themselves 
chiefly to technical pursuits.' That is, one-seventh 
have gone into education, and five-sixths into commerce, 
and something more than one-fortieth into research, at 
their own expense ! 

With respect to this enormous proportion of scien- 
tifically trained persons who are directly or indirectly 
supported by commerce, it should be remarked that 
this source of maintenance is not only the exclusive 
privilege of physical science, but almost the exclusive 
privilege of one only of the physical sciences. There is 

' Report of Evidence, supra cit. p. 368. 



96 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH 

no commercial career open for a biologist, for instance ; 
and the existence of a commercial career — and fre- 
quently a very lucrative one — for the chemist, has the 
effect of starving all the other sciences for the benefit 
of one of them. One of our foremost teachers of biology 
complained to me not long ago, that he was compelled 
to advise his best pupils, who were desirous of devoting 
themselves to a life of research, to give up their own 
study and enter upon that of chemistry, as there was no 
prospect of a career for them in any other science. 

This disturbance of the proportions of knowledge, 
then, is one disadvantage arising from being compelled 
to depend on commerce for support ; and another is 
this — that the introduction of the utilitarian motive 
destroys the strictly scientific character of research. 
To quote the German writer before alluded to :^ 

' The difference between a scientific and an nn-scientific 
operation depends not upon methods nor upon the amount of 
acuteness employed, but solely upon the aim of the operation. 
If a shoemaker, armed with a 1 the appliances of science, 
sets himself to enquire into the constituents of his materials 
and their laws, with the aim and object of outbidding other 
shoemakers by the production of a superior article, he is, 
notwithstanding, and will never be anything else but, a 
highly intelligent shoemaker. 

' But if you are travelling on the railway when the sun is 
shining, and are led to observe the shadow of the carriages 
accompanying the train, and then to ask yourself the question 
whether, if the velocity of the train were constantly to in- 
crease, the shadow would ever get left a little behind by the 
» Zollner, op. cit., pp. 228, 229. 



AS A FORM OF PRODUCTIVE EXPENDITURE. 97: 

train, tJiat is scientific enquiry ; and the man who asks himself 
this question, however rude may be the means which he has 
at disposal for answering it, is nevertheless, jpro tanto, in the 
true sense of the word, a scientific enquirer.' 

Industry and science, lie says in another place, 
though natural allies in a limited field of enquiry, must 
never be confounded ; for they spring from two entirely, 
different needs of the human constitution. 

' Science springs from the need of the intellect to under- 
stand the causes of the phenomena by which man is surrounded;, 
and will have done its work when we can banish the words 
"why" and "wherefore" from our vocabulary. Industry 
springs from the needs of the body, and will have done its work 
when it has supplied the means of satisfying those needs 
down to the slightest and least perceptible of them.'' 

The consideration, in short, that 'knowledge is 
power,' may be one of the reasons why the State or 
individuals should provide for, or take an interest in, it ; 
but the attitude of the mind of the enquirer himself, 
in relation to his object, is only distracted by the 
intrusion of any motive save that only of arriving at 
truth. 

I come now to the case in which the expenses of a 
life devoted to research are supported out of the private 
fortune of the enquirer. This is a way of paying for 
research which is very characteristic of this country ; and, 
judged by its results, it would seem to be more advan- 
tageous to the cause of knowledge than any of the pre- 

? Zollner, op. cit. p. 227. 
H 



98 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH 

ceding expedients. Whilst in Germany the case of 
Humboldt is an exceptional one, it is a remarkable fact 
that some of the greatest scientific work, both as regards 
quality and quantity, has been carried out in England 
by men of property. The possessor of private fortune who 
engages in research is indeed more nearly in the position 
of the recipient of an endowment for research than any 
other, because he is entirely free from the distraction 
of extraneous duties. But the system of letting re- 
search be paid for in this way, is not without grave 
disadvantages. In the first place this kind of support 
is sporadic and fortuitous, and though favourable to the 
development of particular studies, it resembles the 
dependence of science upon commerce in this respect, 
that it is quite inconsistent with the harmonious develop- 
ment of the body of human knowledge as an organised 
and interdependent whole. Secondly, there is unfor- 
tunately no necessary connexion between wisdom and 
the inheritance of riches ; and consequently it is always 
within the bounds of possibility that a man of property 
may subsidise in his own person, not knowledge but 
error, a mischievous crotchet, or a perfectly fruitless 
and impossible enquiry, and may employ the contents 
of a bottomless purse in compelling the attention of the 
world to it. This possibility, thirdly, is analogous to 
another disadvantage attending this mode of support. 
There is no guarantee in the case of the private person, 
as there is to some extent in the case of all the preceding 
expedients, and as may be secured by the proper admi- 



AS 4 FOUM OF PRODUCTIVE EXPENDITURE. 99 

nistration of public endowment, that the investigator is 
sufficiently furnished with the preliminary knowledge 
or discipline to make his researches fruitful. In short, 
work supported by private means is very likely to be 
amateur work, or duplicate work. It may be added, 
finally, that from an economical point of view, the em- 
ployment of private wealth upon research stands on the 
same footing as endowment. If the object is unpro- 
ductive, the community at large is, in either case, poorer 
by all that is consumed by the investigator while 
employed in research. 

These, then, a,re some of the disadvantages accruing 
to the employment of scientific research, from the 
absence of public endowment, and from the haphazard 
means of supporting itself, which it has in consequence 
been compelled directly or indirectly to adopt. 

The endowment of scientific investigation out of the 
taxes has been recommended on a variety of grounds . 
from considerations of the dignity of knowledge and the 
honour of a nation ; from the examples of other nations 
who are under a paternal form of government ; or as 
one of the functions and expenses of the Sovereign. 
Bentham^ justifies it as a work of superfluity, the expense 
of which is trifling as compared to the mass of neces- 
sary contributions. Let anyone, he says, undertake to 
restore to each his quota of this superfluous expense, and 
it would be found to be imperceptible, so as ' to excite no 
distinct sensation which ca,n give rise to a distinct com- 

' Principles of the Civil Code, p. 135. 
H 2 



100 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH 

plaint.' Otters, again, have held that the endowment 
of science involves considerations which do not come 
within the view of political economy; and, therefore, 
if not sanctioned, that such endowment is as little con- 
demned by it. 

We shall endeavour to find out in the sequel whether 
this last allegation is true, and to determine what is 
the economical aspect of direct endowments of science, 
if they have such an aspect. 

On this point the late Mr. Mill has the following 
passage :^ — 

' In a national or universal point of view, the labour of the 
savant or speculative thinker, is as ranch a part of production 
in the very narrowest sense as that of the inventor of a 
practical art, many such inventions having been the direct 
consequences of theoretic discoveries, and every extension of 
knowledge of the powers of nature being fruitful of applica- 
tions to the purposes of outward hfe. The electro-magnetic 
telegraph was the wonderful and most unexpected con- 
sequence of the experiments of CErsted and the mathematical 
investigations of Ampere ; and the modem art of navigation 
is an unforeseen emanation from the purely speculative and 
apparently merely curious enquiry, by the mathematicians of 
Alexandria, into the properties of three curves formed by the 
intersection of a plane surface and a cone. No limit can he 
net to the importance, even in a purely 'productive and material 
point of view, of mere thought. Inasmuch, however, as these 
material fruits, though the result, are seldom the distinct 
purpose of the pursuits of savants, nor is their remuneration 
in general derived from the increased production which they 

• Principles of Political Economy, i. 62, 53. 



^-S- A FORM OF PRODUCTIVE EXPENDITURE. 101 

cause incidentally, and mostly after a long interval, by their 
discoveries, this nltimate influence does not, for most of the 
purposes of political economy, require to be taken into con- 
sideration ; and speculative thinkers are generally classed 
as the producers only of the books, or other useable or sale- 
able articles wliich directly emanate from them. But when 
(as in political economy one s ould always be prepared to do) 
we shift our point of view, ami consider not individual acts, 
and motives by which they are determined, but national 

and universal results, intellectual speculation must be looked 
upon as a viost influential part of the productive lahotir of 
society, and the portion of its resources employed in carrying 
on and remunerating such labour as a highly productive part 
of its expenditure.' 

On tlie other hand, 1" e says farther on : ^ — ; 

' A country would hardly be said to be richer, except by a 
metaphor, however precious a possession it might have in the 
genius, the virtues, or the accomplishments of its inhabitants ; 
unless, indeed, these were looked upon as marketable articles, 
by which it could attract the material wealth of other 
countries, as the Grreeks of old, and several modem nations 
have done.' 

So far Mr. Mill. It will he seen, now, without much 
difficulty, that these two passages are not strictly con- 
sistent with one another ; and their juxtaposition and 
comparison afford a good illustration of the haziness of 
conception which at present hangs over this important 
subject :, for if in speaking of scientific investigation as 
a source of wealth, we are not to confine ourselves to 
those sciences which, like chemistry, and to a small ex- 

* Ibid. pp. 59, 60. 



102 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH 

tent also physics and mathematics, admit of direct 
application to improvements in the manufacture or in 
the means of distribution of material commodities, if 
'mere thought' and 'intellectual speculation' are, as 
Mr. Mill says, to be ' looked upon as a most influential 
part of the productive labour of society,' it would seem 
to follow that a country is richer by ' the genius, virtues, 
and accomplishments of its inhabitants ;' while if, on 
the other hand, it is not made richer by these means, 
we must restrict the title of productive labour to those 
sciences which, although theoretic in themselves, admit 
of being applied, and are constantly leading to improve- 
ments in the arts. 

In connexion with this stage of the discussion, I 
may mention the arguments recently set forth by Mr. 
George Gore, of Birmingham, in a pamphlet,^ wherein 
by a process of simple enumeration, he has exhibited 
the gains to the wealth of the country arising from the 
application of scientific discoveries to manufactures and 
the means of communication and distribution. With 
the most sincere respect for Mr. Gore, I may perhaps be 
allowed to explain the points in which I think that 
this kind of argument misses its aim, so far as it is in- 
tended to prove that it is the duty of the community at 
large to endow the occupation of scientific research. 

1. In the first place, the discoveries which Mr. Gore 
enumerates as sources of wealth belong almost entirely, 

^ The national Importance of Scientific Research, by George Gore, F.R.S. 
Beprinted from the ' Fortnightly Eeview.' 



AS A FORM OF PRODUCTIVE EXPENDITURE. 108 

if not exclusively, to the sciences of physics and chemis- 
try ; and from the importance of these to manufacture 
he seems to draw the inference that not only these, but 
all the physical sciences, have a claim on public endow- 
ment. This, however, does not follow ; for if the claim 
of these two sciences be grounded solely on their appli- 
cation to commercial processes, the legitimate inference 
would be that by far the larger number of the physical 
sciences, such as biology, natural history, geology, and 
paleontology, &c., which do not admit of such ajpplica- 
tion, have no such claim to endowment. It may be 
argued, indeed, of some of the physical sciences, that so 
far from their application tending to the increase of 
wealth, they actually tend to the diminution of it. The 
large class of sciences ancillary to medical practice, for 
instance, and the discovery of remedial agents, however 
important to the community on other grounds, may be 
regarded, in a strictly economical point of view, as 
tending ultimately to a waste of wealth, because medical 
practice is very largely employed in keeping alive a 
multitude of persons who are, whether from their fault 
or their misfortune, entirely or largely unproductive con- 
sumers.' On the other hand we may ask, would it not 
be economically sound, on the principles set forth by 
Mr. Gore, to subsidise researches into the phenomena of 
the production and distribution of wealth? And yet 
political economy is not one of the physical sciences. 
The fact is, this distinction of physical and non-physical 

' Of. Mill, Principles of Political Economy/, vol. i. p. 61. 



104 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH 

sciences cannot be upheld ; and tlie tendency wliich is 
sometimes discernible, amongst the cultivators of the 
physical sciences in this country, to constitute the 
claims of physical science as a separate interest, and to 
regard these branches of study as possessing a solidarity 
with each other, which they do not possess with other 
studies, such as language or history, cannot be too 
strongly protested against in the interest of human 
knowledge. 

2. But not only can no claim for the endowment of 
all the physical sciences, as distinguished from other 
branches of real knowledge, be grounded on the ad- 
mitted usefulness of two of them; on the contrary it 
may be argued, in the second place, from Mr. Gore's 
premisses, that because these two particular sciences 
are so largely capable of application to manufacture, it 
is the manufacturing class, and not the community 
generally, which is called upon to endow them, or, to 
put it in a slightly different form, because commerce 
provides a career for physicists and chemists which it 
does not provide for any other class of scientific men, 
the sciences of physics and chemistry do not possess the 
same claim upon the support of the public purse as 
those which are more exclusively theoretical in their 
character. 

It is well known that Auguste Comte denied the title 
of science altogether to those branches of knowledge 
which did not satisfy ' the test of fecundity,' or capa- 
bility of application to useful objects ; and amongst 



^-S- A FORM OF PRODUCTIVE EXPENDITURE. 105 

those whicli lie regarded as excluded by tliis test were 
sidereal astronomj and political economj. In arguing 
against M. Comte for tlie scientific character of his own 
study, one of our highest economical authorities, the 
late Professor Cairnes, writes as follows : ' — 

' I must derrmr to the test of fecundity as thus under- 
stood. More than one of the physical sciences might find 
themselves in straits if required to make good their preten- 
sions by a criterion of this sort. Geology is counted a science, 
yet amongst practical miners in "Wales and Cornwall, or in 
California and Australia, empirical experience, coupled with 
native sagacity, stands, if I have not been misinformed, for 
much more than the most profound geological knowledge. 
Zoology, botany, perhaps also biology, if brought to the same 
test, might find themselves in similar difficulties ; and I 
rather think Professor Max Miiller would find it no easy 
matter to establish the scientific character of those philo- 
sophical studies of which he is the learned advocate, by the 
criterion of fruit in this sense of the word. Are we then to 
say that these several branches of scientific knowledge have 
borne no fruit, that they have no results to show in evidence 
of their scientific pretensions ? Rather, I think, it behoves 
MS to consider whether such results as those of which 
examples have been given above, applications, that is to say, 
of scientific principles to the practical arts of life, constitute 
the proper fruit of a science. It is in this sense that M. 
Comte applies the test to political economy, and even in this 
sense, as has been seen, political economy emerges triumphant 
from the ordeal ; but the criterion, as thus understood, is 
vicious, and ought not to be accepted. Practical apphcations 
of scientific principles are, I submit, not the proper fruit, but 

' Essays in Political Economy, Theoretical and Applied, by J. E. Cairnes. 
Macmillan, 1873. Pp. 297-299. 



106 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH 

tlie accidental consequences of scientific knowledge ; or if 
fruit, then fruit of the kind typified by the apple of Atalanta, 
against which Bacon warns the aspirant in the scientific race 
as apt to draw him aside from the nobler pursuit. It is not 
in such tangible results that we shall find the genuine fruit of 
science ; these may, and in the end generally will, come in 
abundant supply, but they are not of the essence of the plant ; 
it is not in these, but in that power which is the end and aim 
of scientific knowledge, the power of interpreting nature, of 
explaining phenomena.' 

It is discouraging to turn from a passage like that 
just quoted to the definition of science which appears on 
the first page of the third Report of the Royal Com- 
mission on Scientific Instruction : — 

* Ouj!' use of the term science,' say the Commissioners, 
' in this report is limited, by the scope of the duties assigned 
to us, to the sciences of organic and inorganic nature, including 
under that general designation the sciences of number and 
magnitude, together with those which depend on observation 
and experiment, but excluding the mental and moral sciences, 
as well as all those parts of human knowledge and culture, 
which are not usually regarded as having any scientific cha- 
racter' 

This opposition between the physical sciences and 
other branches of study, I may be permitted to repeat, 
seems to me to be entirely without foundation. Let me 
take one of the latter which is least in favour at the 
present time in this country — the traditional Latin and 
Greek erudition which we have inherited from the time 
of the revival of letters in Europe. What is the classi- 
cal learning of our old universities but a prolonged 



AS A FORM OF PRODUCTIVE EXPENDITURE. 107 

investigation of tlie same kind as geology or paleonto- 
logy into the half-obliterated record of a past state of 
existence ? If tlie treasures of ancient literature had 
not been to a large extent corrupted or destroyed by a 
variety of accidents, or by mere decay and lapse of time, 
the labours of such men as Bentley, Porson, or Gaisford 
would have been rendered as superfluous as those of 
Cuvier or Professor Owen would have been, if the suc- 
cessive races of organic beings which have covered the 
surface of the earth, had not been overwhelmed by a 
series of catastrophes and other natural agencies, which 
have left traces of them sufficient to rouse curiosity, 
but not to satisfy it. The study of ancient grammar, 
the emendation of texts of classical authors, or the ex- 
cavation and comparison of the more material monu- 
ments of antiquity, are not, as is commonly supposed, 
elaborate trifling, but, in precisely the same sense as 
paleontology, are a prolonged endeavour, by the use of 
rigorously scientific methods, to restore to mankind its 
intellectual heritage in the past. 

History, again, is the no less methodised and scien- 
tific observation of extinct forms and stages in the 
development of society ; and I could never understand 
why researches into the rude instruments and utensils 
of primitive man should be accounted science, and the 
study of the records, say, of the French Revolution, 
should not. 

Depend upon it there is no such distinction as that 
which is so often set up in this country between studies 



108 



ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH 



which are scientific and studies which are liberal. All 
research pursued with the aid of rigorous, experimental 
methods is scientific ; and the physical sciences, even 
those which admit of more immediate application to the 
arts, are none the less liberal, if they are pursued with 
the sole aim of increasing knowledge, than ' those parts 
of human knowledge and culture which,' the Eoyal Com- 
missioners tell us, ' are not usually regarded as having 
any scientific character.' Depend upon it, if physical 
science is ever to take its proper place in education, or 
if it is ever to prefer a weU-grounded claim for endow- 
ment from the public purse, it must be content to rank 
as a part, and not as the whole, of scientific knowledge, 
and must ground its pretension to support, not upon 
being useful, but upon being liberal. 

We oome, then, now at last, to the real question— 
What does political economy say to the public endow- 
ment of knowledge of all kinds pursued for its own 
sake? Is the country, in an economical sense, richer 
for the existence of a large class of persons who are 
devoted to the investigation of truth ? Can it endow 
such a class without thereby becoming poorer ? Or, to 
use Mr. Mill's phrase, what is ' the importance, in a 
purely productive and material point of view, of mere 
thought ? ' 

In his essays on ' Some Unsettled Questions of Poli- 
tical Economy,' Mr. Mill lays down the meaning of 
the words ' productive ' and ' unproductive,' as applied 
to labour and expenditure, in the following manner. 



AS A FORM OF PRODUCTIVE EXPENDITURE. 109 

Productive is productive of wealth. Wealth is all 
things tending to the use and enjoyment of mankind, 
which possess exchangeable value, i.e. all things except 
those which, like air and light, can be obtained in un- 
limited quantity without labour or sacrifice, together 
with those which, though produced by labour, are not 
held in sufficient general estimation to command any 
price in the market. 

According to this exposition, inasmuch as knowledge 
is not held in sufficient general estimation to command 
any price in the market, it would appear not to be a 
kind of wealth, and the labour expended in research 
not to be productive labour. 

But Mr. Mill goes further. We must distinguish, 
he says, between labour which produces immediate and 
transitory enjoyment, and labour which produces a per- 
manent source of enjoyment, which admits of being 
stored and accumulated. The performance, for instance, 
on a musical instrument is unproductive labour, because 
the enjoyment ceases^ when the performance is over ; 
but the making of the musical instrument itself; and 
the acquisition of skill in playing upon it, are both pro- 
ductive labour, because both the instrument and the 
skill of the musician are permanent sources of enjoy- 
ment. ' The wealth of a country,' he continues, * con- 
sists of the sum total of the permanent sources of 
enjoyment, whether material or immaterial, contained 

' I demur to this, because if the performance is good, it tends to pro- 
duce culture in the hearer, and culture is a permanent source of enjoyment. 



110 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH 

in it, and tlie labour or expenditure wliicli tends to 
augment or to keep up these permanent sources, is 
productive labour/ ' 

If we regard now tbe cbaracteristics of wealth, here 
laid down, we shall find that they are three : first, it is 
acquired b j labour and capital ; secondly, it is capable 
of being stored and accumulated ; and thirdly, it pos- 
sesses exchangeable value. 

According to this, knowledge regarded jper se, and 
apart from those portions of it which are capable of 
being applied to the arts or to education, would appear 
to possess two at least out of these three characteristics 
of wealth. It is acquired, that is to say, by labour and 
capital, and it is capable of being stored and accumu- 
lated ; but, as before appeared, it does not seem to 
possess any exchangeable value. Is, then, we may ask, 
this quality of exchangeable value essential to the con- 
ception of wealth ? Because, if it is not, we shall come 
near to arriving at the conclusion that knowledge is 
after all a kind of wealth, and consequently that * the 
labour of the savant or speculative thinker is,' as Mr. 
Mill says, 'as much a part of production in the very 
narrowest sense of the word as that of the inventor of a 
practical art.' 

If we turn to the instructive chapter^ in the first 
book of Mill's Political Economy which treats of ' un- 
productive labour,' we find it is not the being ex- 
changeable, but the being susceptible of accumulation, 

* P. 82. * Book i. chap. iii. 



AS A FORM^ OF PRODUCTIVE EXPENDITURE. Ill 

■whicTi is there insisted upon as essential to tlie idea of 
wealth. Wealth is there subsumed under the larger 
class of utilities produced by labour, which are divided 
into (1) properties invested in outward objects, animate 
or inanimate, which render them serviceable to human 
requirements ; (2) the same sort of qualities, such as 
skill and cultivation, embodied in human beings ; and 
(3) those ' pleasures which only exist while being en- 
joyed, and services which only exist while being per- 
formed.' The last class of utilities is not susceptible 
of accumulation, and therefore, it is argued, these utili- 
ties are not, except by a metaphor, wealth ; whilst the 
two former are capable of being stored up, and therefore 
the labour employed in creating them is labour pro- 
ductive of wealth. 

It is curious and unaccountable that after such a 
classification as this, Mill should allow himself to fall 
back upon the popular conception of wealth as exclu- 
sively embodied in material products ; and to affirm 
that ' a country would hardly be called richer, however 
precious a possession it might have in the genius, vir- 
tues, or accomplishments of its inhabitants; unless 
these are looked upon as marketable articles, by which 
it could attract the material wealth of other countries,' 
&c. For it is clear that it is only ' by making,' as he 
says, * the distinction turn upon the permanence rather 
than upon the materiality of the product,' that his 
reiterated assertion can be maintained, that ^ intellec- 
tual speculation must be looked upon as a most influen-. 



112 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH 

tial part of tlie productive labour of society.' This 
vacillation of statement is a highly instructive illustra- 
tion of the fact to which I have more than once ad- 
verted, that the exact economical character of science, 
culture and other immaterial products of labour and 
capital, is a problem which has never yet been fairly 
faced by economists even of the highest authority. 

Let us now consider this residual element of ex- 
changeableness in relation to immaterial wealth, 
which Mill at one place insists upon, and at another 
apparently surrenders as an essential quality of true 
wealth. Is knowledge not exchangeable ? and if not, 
why not? We shall see this, I think, distinctly, if we 
examine what are the elements which go to make up a 
marketable commodity in the ordinary sense. To take 
the instance of the violin. (1) There is first the labour 
of the violin-maker in producing the permanent source 
of enjoyment, i.e. the instrument. (2) There is next 
the permanent source of enjoyment itself in the hands 
of the player— i/ie violin. (3) And thirdly, there is the 
immediate, and, if you will, transitory, enjoyment of 
which it is the source, viz. the music, which is heard 
by the auditor in the concert-room. Here, then, we 
have the conditions of exchange. The violin-maker 
sells his instrument to the player, and the player sells 
his music to the auditor. There are three distinct 
persons concerned, and two distinct transfers of utility ; 
or, if the player plays for his own enjoyment only, there 
are at least two distinct parties and one transfer. And 



AS A FORM OF PRODUCTIVE EXPENDITURE. 113 

these conditions are the minimum sufficient to constitute 
the violin a marketable commodity. 

But it is quite conceivable that the violin-maker 
shall make the violin in order to play upon it himself, 
and for his own enjoyment alone. Here there is no 
distinction of persons, and no transfer of the article of 
production. Does, then, the violin in this particular 
case cease, by the extinction of exchange, to be an 
article of wealth ? I think we should say not. It re- 
mains as before a permanent source of enjoyment. 

Imagine now, in the second place, a state of circum- 
stances in which the violin-maker and the player should 
always of necessity be one, and the player should always 
of necessity perform upon the instrument for his own 
enjoyment alone, and you have a position exactly ana- 
logous to that of knowledge in the matter of exchange- 
ableness. 

In knowledge pursued for its own sake — for it is 
that alone with which we are at present concerned- — the 
producer and the consumer are in reality one person ; 
or rather, the act of production, research, is identical 
with the act of enjoyment. It is only given to those 
who are themselves engaged in original research. "to 
know the supreme delight of coming at first hand in 
contact with fact. This highest species of utility 
cannot be bought with money, as we buy a stall at the 
opera. You must yourself become the producer of the 
commodity in order to be in a position to enjoy it. 
And this circumstance accounts for the fact, which at 

I 



114 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH 

first sight is certainly somewhat embarrassing, that if 
the discovery of truth be so excellent a thing as it 
is represented to be, it should not be held * in sufficient 
general estimation to command any price in the market/ 
The reason is a deduction from what has just been 
said : in order to acquire a material product like a 
pocket of hops, you only need to have the money to pay 
for it ; in order to enjoy even an immaterial product, 
such as a concert or a drama, you only need to be able 
to afford the price of the ticket. But the full enjoy- . 
ment of knowledge cannot be had for money only : it 
requires labour in addition. In order to appropriate to 
the full the satisfactions arising from the great industry 
of increasing the knowledge of mankind, you must 
yourself become a labourer in the same field. To be a 
consumer, you must yourself become a producer. 

In knowledge, then, pursued for its own sake, viewed 
as a kind of production, there would appear to be the 
same elements as in other kinds of production. Only 
from the inherent inseparability of the element of en- 
joyment from the element of production, the area over 
which exchange might otherwise take place, if the pro- 
ducer and consumer were distinct, is diminished to a 
vanishing point. The late Lord Mansfield used to tell 
a story of himself,^ that so impressed was he with the 
notion that no work is well done without being properly 
paid for, that once when about to attend to some pro- 
fessional business of his own, he took several guineas 

^ Lord St. Leonards' Handy Book of Froi^erty Law, p. 135. 



AS A FORM OF PRODUCTIVE EXPENDITURE. 115 

out of his purse, and put them, into his waistcoat pocket, 
as a fee for his labours. No doubt the scientific 
observer might do the same if he chose, and thereby 
satisfy himself that knowledge was not only a permanent 
source of enjoyment, but that it possessed also, though 
in a latent form, the quality of being exchangeable. 
But it may be questioned whether he would thereby 
materially increase the claim of knowledge to be 
reckoned as wealth, or its pretension to be supported 
out of the public funds. 

I have, in the foregoing, endeavoured to rest that 
pretension upon what I believe to be the only sound 
economical ground for endowing research — viz., that 
knowledge, and more particularly knowledge which is 
always moving onwards into new regions of experience, 
possesses all the essential marks of wealth, and that, 
therefore, that portion of the material resources of a 
nation which is employed in carrying on and remune- 
rating the labour of research, in whatever field of 
enquiry, ' is a highly productive part of its expendi- 
ture.' ^ 

This I conceive to be the true ground, that science 
is itself ivealth, and not the lower and special ground, 
which on examination turned out to be an argument on 
the opposite side — viz., that one or two special sciences 
admit of immediate application to manufacture. 

But there are other ways subsidiary to the foregoing 
in which the disinterested investigation of fact has an 

1 Mm, 1. c. 

I 2 



116 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH 

economical aspect, to wliicli I will, in conclusion, briefly 
advert. 

We have liitlierto regarded knowledge mainlj in 
respect of its production by research, and as having its 
end and aim in itself— viz., the attainment of truth. 
But although the full and perfect enjoyment of the 
gradual disclosure of new fields of experience is the sole 
privilege of those immediately engaged in the work of 
enquiry, there is yet an indirect but most important 
way in which the results and even the methods of 
research, may be made generally available by populari- 
sation, by education, by printed books, and by conver- 
sation and social intercourse. In what relation, then, 
does original research stand to these expedients for the 
diffusion of its results — I mean in what economical 
relation ? 

In the first place, it is a remarkable fact as bearing 
on the unmarketable character of knowledge, that, as 
we have seen above, not only is there no exchange 
possible of the article of knowledge itself from a pro- 
ducer to a consumer, but even in the diffusion of the 
results of investigation the same difficulty about ex- 
change occurs. 

Thus, for instance, in order to effect a perfect 
exchange, I must be able to transfer the commodity 
which I produce to jou who want to consume it, i.e. I 
must be able to divest myself of it, and make it over to 
you. It is only on the supposition that I have ceased 
to possess it after the transfer, that I can make any 



AS A FORM OF PRODUCTIVE EXPENDITURE. 117 

claim upon you for payment. But in the case of know- 
ledge, such a complete transfer cannot be made. 
Because it is impossible for a person who communicates 
a truth of which he is in possession, to divest himself of 
the knowledge of it, as a man who sells any material 
commodity ceases to possess it after he has delivered it 
to the purchaser. The communication of knowledge 
resembles rather the taking of another into partnership, 
than the delivery of an article of value ; but it diflPers 
from a partnership, because, the amount of the know- 
ledge remaining the same, the share of the partners in 
it does not become less by the increase nor greater by 
the diminution of their number. 

Another difficulty in making knowledge an article 
of exchange arises from the fact that, unlike every 
other commodity, it cannot he consumed. When once 
produced it is indestructible. To revert to our former 
instance of the violin. The violin which is sold to the 
musician may wear out, or be destroyed, or rendered 
useless, and a new one may be required. And this 
recurrence of demand for the production of a similar 
article, depending upon its capability of being consumed, 
enables the violin-maker to get a living. In the same 
way with an immaterial utility such as the enjoyment 
produced by the player in his audience — the enjoyment 
is over with the performance, and the recurrence of the 
demand for it enables the musician to live. But it is 
scarcely conceivable that the accumulated store of 
human knowledge, or any part of it, should, in the 



118 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH 

j)resent state of tlie world, be ever used up. It could 
only be destroyed by an exceptional catastrophe, like, 
only on a much larger scale than, the immigration of 
the barbarians into the Eoman Empire, which ushered 
in the darkness of the Middle Ages. And what is 
absolutely true of the whole store of knowledge is 
relatively true of any part of it. Any given result of 
research, once produced, is only capable of that slow 
and relative consumption which consists in its being 
ultimately superseded by subsequent discovery. 

A third difficulty in the way of making knowledge 
an exchangeable commodity is this. The savant may, 
of course, communicate to others his results and the 
methods by which he has arrived at them. And in 
order to give them a marketable value, it has been sug- 
gested by some persons that scientific observers should 
keep their discoveries secret until an adequate price is 
offered for them by the purchaser. But there are in- 
superable difficulties arising out of the unique and ex- 
ceptional character of knowledge, in the way of making 
it a saleable commodity even on these terms. If a 
scientific man were to come forward and say, ' I have 
discovered a most important law, the knowledge of 
which is likely to revolutionise science, and all our 
views of human life and well-being. And if you will 
give me the moderate sum of 10,000Z. I will tell you 
what it is.' Let us suppose that a purchaser appears 
who is willing to pay the price demanded, provided he 
can be convinced that the article is worth it. How is 



AS A FORM OF PRODUCTIVE EXPENBITURE. 119 

he to be conviuced of this without having the discovery 
explained to him ? whilst if it is explained to him, he 
not only has inspected the commodity which he pro- 
poses to purchase, he has already, by inspecting, appro- 
priated it. Knowledge, then, by this contrivance, can 
only be really bought marketably by that small class of 
purchasers who do not object to buying what is called 
' a pig in a poke.' 

These are some of the difficulties — for there are 
many other subsidiary ones — which affect the ex- 
changeable value of new knowledge, in what I may call 
its first two stages. In the first stage it can only be 
bought by labour, as well as money; in the second 
stage it cannot be really transferred to the purchaser, 
it cannot be consumed, and it can only be bought in 
the dark. No wonder, then, that it should not be held, 
as Mill says, in sufficient general estimation to com- 
mand any price in the market. 

But there is a third stage, in which new knowledge 
may be regarded, viz. as providing a part of the materials 
for education. And before it has reached this stage, it 
has generally drifted far away from that economical 
position, in which it could be reckoned as in any way 
the property of the original discoverer. The educator 
gets his materials, in the way of knowledge, at the 
nominal price which he pays for a single copy, perhaps 
a second-hand copy, of the book in which they are 
published. He appropriates the researches of thirty 
years, it may be, at the price of as many pence. 



120 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH 

What, then, is the economical aspect of knowledge 
when it has arrived at this third stage ? Here it is 
not so much wealth in the sense of a permanent source 
of enjoyment, as wealth in the sense of being the 
fructifier, the fuel, of the great and necessary industry 
of public instruction. As coal is not produced by 
Nature for our convenience, but in the accomplishment, 
so to spealc, of her own ends : so knowledge is created 
by the savant, not for the sake of its use in education, 
but for the sake of its truth. And both the one and 
the other are free to be taken by those industries which 
need them. 

Now we have been much alarmed of late by the 
consideration that our supply of coal may eventually 
come to an end, bringing with it as its apparently in- 
evitable consequence the decrepitude of industry. But 
what if the perennial supply of new knowledge were to 
be dried up ? What would become of education ? We 
know what would become of it, because we have had 
experience of such a period, when the fountains of 
knowledge were closed, within historic times. In the 
Middle Ages, the larger part of the knowledge of the 
ancient world had been lost, and the fruitful methods 
for the increase of it, had perished. What was the cha- 
racter of medieval education ? It was essentially an 
education in words, in. logical distinctions; an indefinite 
morcellement of a restricted intellectual area, the means 
for extending which had perished ; in a word, it was 
Rhetoric, ' die Phrase in der Wissenschaft,' which we 



AS A FORM OF PRODUCTIVE EXPENDITURE. 121 

have before noted as tending to take the place of 
science, when science becomes stationary. 

To sum up. It would appear that the conclusions 
to which the consideration of the whole subject have 
led us are these : — 

1. That the various artificial means by which scien- 
tific research has been hitherto supported are attended 
with grave disadvantages to science itself. 

2. That, therefore, the only means of maintaining 
knowledge which remains, is that of public endowment. 

3. And that the application of endowments to the 
maintenance of scientific research is economically 
sound, because, although knowledge is a kind of wealth 
there are apparently insuperable difficulties in the way 
of making it an exchangeable commodity, out of the 
sale of which the scientific observer can make a living. 

Did space pei-mit, I might draw attention to some 
other very interesting considerations which arise out of 
the discussion of this question, as to the beneficial effect 
which purely abstract ideas — such as e.g. that of the 
universal brotherhood of mankind — have exercised indi- 
rectly on the production of wealth by bringing about 
changes in the relations of men and nations to one 
another. But I will content myself with recalling a 
single instance of the public endowment of research, 
which was made three hundred years ago, and which 
has lately been thus described: — 

' Of all the tappily situated mental labourers who have 
worked since the days of Horace, surely Tycho Brahe was the 



122 ON Tim ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH 

happiest, and most to be envied. King Frederick of Den- 
mark gave him a delightful island for his habitation, large 
enough for him not to feel imprisoned (the circumference 
being about five miles), yet little enough for him to feel as 
snugly at home there, as Mr. Waterton in his high- walled 
park. The land was fertile and rich in game, so that the 
scientific Robinson Crusoe lived in material abundance ; and 
as he was only about seven miles from Copenhagen, he could 
procure everything necessary to his convenience. He built a 
great house on the elevated land in the midst of the isle, 
about three quarters of a mile from the sea, a palace of art 
and science, with statues and paintings and all the apparatus 
which the ingenuity of that age could contrive for the 
advancement of astronomical pursuits. 

'Uniting the case of a rich nobleman's existence with 
every aid to science, including special erections for his 
instruments, and a printing establishment that worked under 
his own immediate direction, he lived far enough from the 
capital to enjoy the most perfect tranquillity, yet near enough 
to escape the consequences of too absolute isolation. Aided 
in all he undertook by a stafi" of assistants that he himself had 
trained, supported in his labour by the encouragement of his 
sovereign, and especially by his own unflagging interest in 
scientific investigation, he led in that peaceful island the 
ideal intellectual life. Of that mansion where he laboured, of 
the observatory where he watched the celestial phenomena, 
surrounded but not disturbed by the waves of a shallow sea, 
there remains at this day literally not one stone upon another ; 
but many a less fortunate labourer in the same field, harassed 
by poverty, distracted by noise and interruption, has remem- 
bered with pardonable envy the splendid peace of Uranien- 
borg.' ^ 

' The Intellectual Life, by P. G-. Hamerton. Macmillan, 1873. Pp. 
435-7. 



AS A FORM OF PRODUCTIVE EXPENDITURE. 123 

This was the princely fashion in which the sixteenth 
century thonght fit to endow research ; is it too 
much to hope that this should be the scale on which 
this or some future generation shall again think fit to 
maintain and cherish it ? 



124 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 



Y. 

RESULTS OF TEE EXAMINATION- SYSTEM 
AT OXFORD,^ 

By Aechibau) Hei^ry Satce, M.A., Fellow and Tutor of 
Queen's College, Oxford. 

In the Edinburgh Review for April, 1874, there appeared 
an article in which the results of applying the system 
of competitive examination to admission into the Indian 
Civil Service were subjected to a rigorous examination. 
The writer came to the conclusion that while the oh- 
jections urged against the system at its first starting 
have not been justified, the actual working of it has 
disclosed other objections of so serious a nature as to 
involve its entire condemnation. The ostensible reason 
for abolishing the old system of patronage was, that 
it failed to secure the right men ; the same objection 
holds with equal force against the present system of 
examination. If patronage afforded no guarantee of 
mental power, examination affords no guarantee of 
what is even more important, character and ability to 
manage the affairs of a great empire. Indeed the mere 
cleverness that comes to the top in a competitive exa- 

' This essay was contributed to the Fortnightly Review of June 1875. 



RESULTS OF EXAMINATION-SYSTEM. 125 

mination too often implies a want of depth, and prac- 
tical experience ; while it is certain that the old feeling 
of es;prit de corps as well as the practical training and 
education needed by those who are to govern an ori- 
ental nation, are ignored and discouraged. But besides 
this failure always to secure the right men, the present 
system lies under the disadvantage of directly encou- 
raging cram. The patronage once exercised by those 
who were at all events interested in the government of 
India has now become a monopoly in the hands of a 
few metropolitan crammers, and success in the exa- 
mination accordingly implies not ability but mere 
memory and unintelligent acquisition of facts. The 
candidate no longer works and studies with a view to 
the position lie is hereafter to occupy, but solely to the 
place he hopes to obtain in a competitive examination. 
A system which is open to three such charges as these — 
the encouragement of cram, the perversion of the true 
object to be aimed at, and the failure to secure the right 
men — stands sufficiently condemned. There is no need 
of adding other and lesser charges, such as the injury 
done to the unsuccessful candidate whose best years 
and energies have been devoted to an almost useless 
pursuit, or the spirit of thankless self-seeking produced 
by the consciousness that success is owed to nothing 
except the industry of the candidate himself. So far 
as the Indian Civil Service is concerned, the results of 
competitive examination are pronounced a failure and a 
disappointment. 



126 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

Those who thus complain of them, however, turn 
for relief to the examination-system of the universities, 
where, it is averred, the evils of cram are avoided 
and the intellectual capabilities of the candidates 
called forth and tested. Is this really so? Is not 
rather the feverish legislation of the last few years 
— for ever tinkering and changing the examinations, 
now transferring a Pass subject to an Honour school, 
now performing the reverse operation, but always heap- 
ing heavier and heavier burdens on the shoulders of 
the examinees — a constant indication that the doctors 
feel that their patient is sick, but instead of striking at 
the roots of the malady load the exhausted appetite 
with ever-increasing quantities of undigested food? 
When we look at the formidable array of subjects now 
required at Oxford from a candidate for honours in 
Moderations — an examination, be it remembered, which 
is considered to mark the closing of school-education, 
after which childish things must be put away — we feel 
how impossible it is for the student to acquire anything 
like a thorough knowledge of his work, much less ' a 
minute acquaintance ' with even a single subject like 
Comparative Philology. The preparation for such an 
examination cannot differ materially from a prepara- 
tion for the condemned examination of the Indian 
Civil Service. Nor is it much better when we turn to 
the Final Classical Examination. Here, if anywhere, 
the superiority of our Oxford system ought to show 
itself, and demonstrate that competition without cram 



RESULTS OF EXAMINATION-SYSTEM. 127 

is a possibility. It is by this staple and pillar of our 
system that we must stand or fall. And yet how is it 
possible for a youth not three-and- twenty, and but just 
emerging from the chrysalis of the school-boy, to have 
explored within the space of two years the philosophies 
of Locke and Bacon, of Hume and Kant, of Plato and 
Aristotle, and to have mastered at the same time the 
principles of ancient and modern logic, the maxims of 
political philosophy, and the facts of Greek and Roman 
history ? Anything like a profound and independent 
study of these great subjects is clearly out of the ques- 
tion : all that the pupil can do is to swallow pele-mele 
the heterogeneous mass of theories and extracts his 
teachers give him, carefully selecting those which will 
' pay ' best in the schools. But, if so, how does this 
differ from the training of the Indian Civil Service 
crammer? The answer shall be given by Professor 
Eolleston, speaking at a meeting recently held in 
London : — 

' One result of our present examination-system is that men, 
who as grown men, and during the whole of their university 
career are subjected to the ordeal of examination infuturo, 
having that sword of Damocles hanging over their heads, do 
not look at what they have under study as so much truth, 
hut look upon it as something to be reproduced on paper, 
and to further their designs on fellowships and scholarships 
and other pecuniary rewards. Now when a man is kept for 
something like twenty-three or twenty-four years of his life 
under that sort of training, he gets apt to look at all work 
whatever of the intellectual kind from the point of view of 



128 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

the examination merely. Men get demoralised bj tlie process. 
They do not look at the truth for itself. They have no 
notion of pushing forward the elements of knowledge into 
some area into which nothing has been before,' 

From Cambridge, also, comes the same evidence. I 
take the following from the Times report of a discus- 
sion that took place in the Arts School there (December 
3, 1874), relative to a proposal to start a new medical 
examination : — 

' Mr. H. Russell (St. John's) opposed the proposition as in 
the direction of turning the university into an examining 
body and nothing more. Where was this extension to stop ? 
The university ought to put up a large brass plate with the 
inscription, " Examinations held here." 

' Mr. Arthur Hohnes (Clare) regretted that the university 
was becoming more practical and less studious ; it did not 
promote real science or original research. Examiners were 
the feature of this age, and they were getting intolerable. A 
friend of his, quoting Tom Paine's allegation that the worst 
use you could put a man to was to hang him, said that he 
thought the worst use you could put a man to was to examine 
him; but Mr. Holmes thought a still worse use to put men to 
was the work of examining others.' 

Such is the testimony borne by men who have seen 
the working of these much-vaunted university exami- 
nations : both at Oxford and Cambridge they are pro- 
nounced to encourage cram, to check independent 
study, and so not to secure the success of the right 
men. But these are the very objections brought 
against the Indian Civil Service examination, on the 



RESULTS OF EXAMINATION-SYSTEM. 129 

strength of whicli it is judged to have failed. Before, 
however, we can accept the justice of this judgment in. 
regard to our university examinations, it is necessary 
to consider in detail their tendencies and results. In. 
order to do this I must first compare the relative merits 
of Pass and Class, and then we can see whether the 
three charges (1) of encouragement of cram, (2) of ex- 
tinction of disinterested study, and (3) of failure to 
secure the right men, can fairly be urged against the 
university system. After this we shall be in a position 
to enquire into the effects of the system on the character 
of the universities and the distribution of their endow- 
ments. 

Now, firstly, as to the distinction which must be 
drawn between Pass and Class. The Passman is a 
somewhat transformed representative of the ancient 
conception of a university as a place of ' sound learn- 
ing,' in which all the known arts and sciences were 
taught and degrees were conferred. The student came 
to learn and graduate, not to compete. The Classman, 
on the other hand, is essentially a creation of the pre- 
sent age. The university for him is a goose that lays 
golden eggs, and his object is to get as many of them 
as he can. He brings with him certain marketable 
commodities, derived partly from natural gifts, partly 
from education at expensive schools, and the university 
is the market where he can sell his goods. He comes 
there not to learn, but to traffic in learning ; not to 
gain knowledge for its own sake, but for what it will 

K 



130 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

fetch. ; and Ms degree represents not that he has ac- 
quired the social polish and the modicum of informa- 
tion needful for the ' gentleman,' much less that he 
has pursued his studies under the fostering shadow of 
ancient institutions and noble libraries, but that he is 
worth a certain price in the work-a-day world. No 
doubt there are many to whom the glory of obtaining 
high honours is all the reward for which they struggle ; 
but the principle that underlies the Class list, as op- 
posed to that which underlies the Pass degree, is a 
mercenary one. The university sets a standard before 
the Classmen considerably above that required for 
merely taking a degree, and why should he labour to 
attain it ? There can be but three reasons — interest in 
his work, desire of reputation, or else the mercenary 
one. The j&rst reason can have but little place where 
the work has to be done for an examination ; the second 
has still some weight, even in these days of athletic 
apotheosis ; but it is the third reason which in reality 
attracts most of our undergraduates — and very rightly 
too, as things are at present — to seek for honours. 

If it be true that the Passman comes to the Univer- 
sity with the primary object of taking a degree, the 
Classman with the primary object of turning it into a 
sort of Stock Exchange, there can be little hesitation in 
deciding which of the two is, in principle, the more 
meritorious. But now the examiner steps in, and spoils 
everything. It has become an accepted | axiom thab 
none but the idle and brainless will be content with a 



RESULTS OF EXAMINATION-SYSTEM. ]31 

Pass degree ; tliat tlie three or four years wliicli a man 
spends at Oxford or Cambridge must either be devoted 
to reading for an examination, or else to not reading at 
all ; and that the libraries we possess must never be 
used bj an undergraduate, except when he wants one 
of Bohn's translations, or some other book equally ser- 
viceable for the schools. The number of Passmen who 
occupy their leisure with other subjects than those re- 
quired by the examination-statute, and follow up some 
bent of their own, is growing smaller every year, and 
we have but two classes of them left — those who put off 
their reading for the schools until the last moment, frit- 
tering away the rest of their time in amusements of all 
kinds ; and the stupid but conscientious, who never for- 
get for an instant that they are passing through the 
treadmill of an examination. And what examinations 
they are which form the end and object of the best part 
of a Passman's career ! At Oxford, Eesponsions, which 
all have to attempt, and Pass Moderations, are exami- 
nations which it is an indignity to require a man to un- 
dergo who has arrived at years of discretion. That 
such examinations, which ought to be easy for a boy of 
fourteen, should be found too hard for a large propor- 
tion of the candidates, says but little for the education 
given in our English schools. Supposing, however, 
that the candidate does succeed in passing, what are 
the benefits he receives at all corresponding with the 
time and labour and money expended upon his previous 
preparation? The power of perpetrating a piece of 

K 2 



132 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

' Latin prose/ so called, wliich would have made even 
a provincial stone-cutter of the fourth century sick to 
read ; of reproducing in a mangled shape the impossible 
English of some third-rate ' crib,' without the faintest 
understanding of the thought and language of the ori- 
ginal, and of setting down grammatical forms which 
have no existence save in the pages of obsolete and un- 
scientific grammars — these are the highest results 
aimed at and attained by the ordinary Passman. 
Surely, on Bacon's principle that superstition is worse 
than atheism, such an education as this is worse than 
none at all, and on the score neither of utility nor of its 
developing the faculties of the mind does it admit of 
justification. Can it be right to waste the most precious 
years of a man's life in making him learn what he had 
better forget as soon as possible, and force him to con- 
nect with the idea of study what the true student would 
be the first to disown ? That there is no necessity for 
this in the nature of things may be concluded from the 
fact that the final Pass examinations at Oxford are not 
open to any of these objections. Here, at any rate, the 
subjects of examination are calculated to call forth the 
intelligence and the interest of the student ; he is not 
burdened with too much routine work to the exclusion 
of all else ; and the admission of subjects like English 
and the modern languages shows that some allowance 
has been made for the element of utility. 

But if the final examinations for the Oxford Pass 
Degree are thus satisfactory, almost their only draw- 



RESULTS OF EXAMINATION-SYSTEM. 133 

back being that they fall at too late a period in a man's 
life, after he has been encouraged to spend in self- 
indulgent idleness and boyish pursuits the years which 
other classes of the community occupy with the serious 
business of the world, the same unfortunately cannot 
be said of the Honour examinations. Take, first, the 
charge that they encourage cram. Cram may be de- 
fined as the accumulation of undigested facts and 
secondhand theories to be reproduced on paper, handed 
in to the examiner, and then forgotten for ever. A 
crammed examinee differs from a crammed Strasburg 
goose in not assimilating his nutriment, and this would 
be a real advantage were it not that the process leaves 
him. with a nauseated appetite, enfeebled reasoning 
powers, though abnormally enlarged memory, and a 
general distaste for disinterested study. Those who 
have seen the victim nervously poring over his ' tips ' 
and condensed abstracts of condensed note-books up to 
ihe last moment before undergoing the ordeal ; those 
who have been condemned to wade through paper after 
paper sent in by the candidates for a fellowship, the 
intellectual elite of the university, all filled with the 
same dreary echoes of college lectures and parrot-like 
repetitions of misunderstood ideas and phrases, cannot 
but turn regretfully to the crowded lecture-rooms and 
eager students of a German university. Fruitless have 
been the endeavours to avoid the evil of cram which it 
is the nature of examinations, more especially competi- 
tive examinations, to produce. First of all, a stand was 



134 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCR. 

made upon Latin and Greek composition, until it was 
demonstrated that tliis implied a merely meclianical re- 
collection of various words and sentences with a power 
of applying them acquired by practice, and that imita- 
tion of the idiosyncrasies of a few literary men, however 
successful, while it diverted the pupil's attention from 
the matter of the classics, gave him no real knowledge 
of the language itself. Tlien translation into English 
was made the test of proficiency, as showing not only 
an insight into the idioms of the two languages, but 
considerable ability as well; but it was found that 
translation for the purposes of the examiner was prac- 
tically useless. If the piece set was easy, the examiner 
was unable to differentiate the candidates ; if it was 
hard, those only succeeded with it who had ' crammed 
up ' certain crabbed passages which were likely to be 
picked out for examination ; if an author had been pre- 
pared beforehand, translation might show industry and 
memory, but opened wide the door for cram again ; if 
unseen passages were given, the examiner could not be 
sure that a correct rendering did not prove them to 
have been already read, l^ext the view was started 
that examination in the matter of the books offered by a 
candidate would lay the ever-returning spectre, and for 
a time the experiment seemed to answer. But soon the 
inevitable crammer intervened again with a cut-and- 
dried list of questions likely or possible, and the students 
began to collect second-hand information about their 
books rather than read the books themselves. Asain 



BESULTS OF EXAMINATION-SYSTEM. 135 

tlie -wlieel has liad to be reversed, and an accurate know- 
ledge of the texts once more insisted upon. 

But it may be said, however true all this may be, it 
does not apply to the Oxford Final Classical School ; 
philosophy, at least, makes a man think, and renders 
cram well-nigh impossible. Actual experience, how- 
ever, does not bear this out. Few youths of twenty- 
three are fitted to be philosophers, and all that can be 
done is to make them repeat the formulse of conflicting 
systems of logic and mental and moral philosophy. 
Too often, the undergraduate, after receiving a smat- 
tering of philosophical theories past and present, with 
a neatly labelled catalogue of arguments jpro and con, 
becomes an intolerable prig, with a supreme contempt 
for facts or scientific enthusiasm, and an equal belief in 
his power of criticising his teachers from Aristotle to 
Mill. A first class gives the title to his claims, and 
allows him to pass through life an amiable dilettante, 
who has discovered that all things may be disposed of 
by half-a-dozen a priori quibbles, and that scientific 
certainty is a dream. Not very long ago the Oxford 
Class-list in the Final Classical Examination was as 
much a monopoly as the appointments to the Indian 
Civil Service. It became an accepted axiom in the un- 
dergraduate world that none but the pupils of a certain 
well-known ' coach ' had muQh chance of getting a first; 
and when the examiners tried to circumvent him by 
changing the character of the papers, they found them- 
selves no match for the crammer, who had swung round 



136 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

from Mill to Herbert Spencer, and from Herbert 
Spencer to Hegel. 

The monopoly, then in the hands of a single ' coach,' 
has now passed into the hands of an organisation, far 
more dangerous and less easy to counteract. The col- 
leges have formed combinations, by means of which 
their members are able to attend lectures upon all the 
various subjects of the Final Classical School, instead of 
heing obliged to content themselves with a few selected 
lectures in their own college. For examination pur- 
poses nothing can be better, and a college tutor in his 
official capacity is bound to do his utmost to further the 
scheme. But if the examination- system be an evil, these 
combined lectures do but maintain and intensify the 
evil. Cramming for a particular examination has been 
systematised under authoritative sanction: an under- 
graduate has no time or opportunity for independent 
reading of his own ; his work is cut out for him, and 
his chief business is to run from lecture to lecture, 
filling his note-books with scraps of knowledge to be 
poured out in a crude and undigested mass when the 
examination-day arrives. However able a man may be, 
he cannot venture to break through the bonds of this 
martinet tyranny, and dispensing with leading-strings 
to read and study for himself, and so risk entering the 
schools at a disadvantage. The time is not far distant 
when the undergraduate was not thus studiously taught 
to walk on crutches, and when much of his work had 
perforce to be done by himself or through the medium 



RESULTS OF EXAMINATION-SYSTEM. 137 

oi a 'coacli;' but the ' coach's ' pla.ce has now been 
taken by the colleges, and good and bad have been 
forced through the same drill. The individual cannot 
stand out against a prevailing system w^ithout sacri- 
ficing himself ; and the combined lecture-scheme, vp^hich 
is at bottom an elaborate system of cram, is yearly be- 
•coming more organised, more extended, and more 
indispensable. So long as examinations hold their own, 
it is useless to fight against cram : cram is not the 
fault of any particular examination, or of any particular 
liind of examination, but of all examinations whatso- 
ever, and the more competitive they are the more will 
they encourage cram. Disguise it as we will, sooner 
or later the fact must be recognised, though not, 
perhax3S, until the details of our examination- system 
liave undergone some further tinkering. 

The extinction of disinterested study is a necessary 
consequence of the encouragement of cram. When 
the best and most receptive years of a man's life have 
been passed in having the doctrine ground into him, 
that the end of all reading is to cheat the examiner, 
and that knowledge is valuable only so far as it can be 
made to pay in an examination, it is hard to see how 
he can unlearn the teaching he has received, and alter 
the character that has been formed in him. The 
grown man is what he has been taught to be, and out 
of cram may come many pages of examination answers, 
or even a fellowship, but not original research and the 
love of knowledge for its own sake. The specialist at 



138 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF UESEARCIL 

tlie universities finds himself a marked man, witli a- 
wisp of haj upon his horns ; he is looked upon with 
mingled feelings of suspicion and pity, or else regarded 
as aiming at a sinecure professorship. That there can 
be any Icnowledge outside the curriculum of the uni- 
ve^-sity, or if there is that it is of any value, is seldom 
dreamed of. More exclusive than an oligarchy of birth, 
more sordid than an oligarchy of wealth, we assume 
that tbe only subjects worth learning are those in 
which we examine, and that the worth even of these 
consists in their being made to ' pay.' Professor Max 
Muller offered in vain, term after term, to read the 
Rig-Veda with any one of the 2,400 members of the 
University of Oxford ; none would go to him, since a 
third-hand acquaintance with a few words and forms, 
from that oldest specimen of Aryan literature is suffi- 
cient for the schools. The same professor, one of the 
most interesting and lucid of lecturers, when lecturing 
on the fascinating subject of comparative mythology, 
which he has made so peculiarly his own, could collect 
but a miserable fragment of an audience around him, 
and even of this the larger part consisted of college 
lecturers who intended to retail to their own pupils 
some of the crumbs which had fallen into their note- 
books. It is almost impossible to find a majority of 
fellows in any college willing to give away a single 
fellowship for a special subject not 'recognised in the 
schools,' even when the candidate does not object to 
be examined; and after this, "'idle' fellowships are 



EESULTS OF EXAMIKATIOK-STSTEM. 339^ 

defended on the ground that they encourage study and 
give an opportunity for learned leisure. But the study 
and learning that are meant are the study and learning 
that grow up out of the questions and answers in an 
examination-room. The specialist who pleads in behalf 
of another kind of learning is considered a fanatic, out 
of harmony with the spirit of our English universities, 
and unappreciative of their merits. 'We don't want 
original researchers,' I have not unfrequently heard it 
said, ' but good all-round men,' that is to say, the best 
specimens of the crammer who have a smattering of 
many things but know nothing well. But how can it 
be otherwise? Men whose whole attention has been 
given to discovering what will ]3ay in the schools are 
not likely, when they have gained their reward and a 
sinecure annuity, to devote themselves to disinterested 

study. 

Ha3C animos ^rngo et cura pecTili 
Ciun semel imbuerit, speraraxis carmina fingi 
Posse linenda cedro et levi servanda cxipresso ? 

Competitive examinations and original research are 
incompatible terms. The object of the one is to appear 
wise, the object of the other to he so. The one is 
mercenary, the other unselfish ; and however advisable 
it may be to drive a boy through a mental treadmill, 
the process must degrade a man into a piece of" 
machinery. Whatever may be the interest he takes in 
some department of knowledge, it is certain to be killed 
by its being made a subject of examination. I have- 



.140 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

known of cases in wliicli men have come to Oxford 
with a fresh and sympathetic interest in language or 
history, and have sadly watched it gradually fading 
under the influences of the examination-system until, 
by the time their university course has been finished, 
it has disappeared altogether. They have become like 
their companions, with the schools and the boats as the 
main topics of their talk and meditation. 

Now it may be seriously questioned whether this is 
exactly the kind of result which it is desirable for an 
university to turn out. We want men who can think 
for themselves ; not men with an unlimited capacity of 
cramming down other people's statements, and produc- 
ing what is called a brilliant set of answers. If a man 
really knows a subject, he is pretty certain to do badly 
when examined in it. Even if the examiner is as well 
acquainted with it as himself, he is unlikely to have 
studied it from the same point of view, or to have fixed 
his attention on the same set of phenomena, and his 
questions, therefore, will not be a fair test of the other's 
proficiency. Moreover a thorough knowledge of a sub- 
ject absolutely prevents it from being compressed into 
the answers to a few questions. It is only the 
smatterer who can do this ; the real student, with all 
ihe details, the arguments for and against, the side 
views, and dependent hypotheses before him, finds that 
he must write a book if he would answer only a single 
question adequately, and that to require him to jot 
down even the outlines of answers to half-a-dozen 



RESULTS OF EXAMINATION-SYSTEM. ]41 

questions within the limit of three or four hours shows 
either ignorance or imbecility. To pass an examination 
with success, we must not know, but only seem to 
know, and the candidate who plays the sophist best 
will gain the best place. It seems to be forgotten that 
the knowledge needed for passing an examination, and 
the knowledge needed for producing a great book or a 
great discovery, are essentially different, and therefore 
that the talent required in the two cases is also essen- 
tially different. At present the Chinese theory is in 
full possession of the public mind, and it is imagined 
that a high class means coiTesponding abilities and 
information ; and so it does if we understand abilities 
and information for examination purposes only. It is a 
truism at Oxford, at all events, that the best examinee 
does not always mean the best man; and, even from 
the point of view of the examination system itself, we 
not unfrequently find a fellowship examination reversing* 
the decision of the examiners in the Final Classical 
Schools. Instances are ready at hand where a second- 
class man is acknowledged to be better than a first-class 
man — indeed, it does not require a long inspection of 
the class lists to discover numerous examples of this 
fact — and I have often heard it remarked that ^ it is a 
chance for the right man to get a fellowship.' Most of 
us who have had any experience of the matter can 
testify how extremely hard it is to pick out the really 
able man in a fellowship examination, and how fre- 
quently it ha.ppens that the inferior candidate succeeds 



142 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

in securing his sinecure annuity, while a man of inde- 
pendent thought and originality of character has to 
leave his — not alma mater, but — injusta noverca, and 
resign the income which might have afforded him 
leisure and opportunity for study and research, to 
rabsentee barristers and rising schoolmasters. 

I think the foregoing will show pretty clearly that 
the testimonies quoted from Oxford and Cambridge 
at the beginning of the article are in no way exagge- 
Tated, and that the examination-system at the univer- 
sities, when tested on the three points of prevention of 
€ram, of encouragement of study, and of securing the 
right men, is as great a failure as it has been said to be 
in the case of the Indian Civil Service. But, if so, its 
results must be incalculably mischievous. The two 
time-honoured English universities, with their large 
endowments, their excellent libraries, their wide con- 
nexion, and their national traditions, instead of holding 
np an ideal of sound learning and disinterested study, 
and checking the present mercantile current of popular 
belief, have degenerated into mere examining-machines. 
In the place of the calm pursuit of knowledge and the 
encouragement of original research, we have the hot 
competition of slaving undergraduates — for students we 
cannot call them — who are taught that learning is of 
no value except in so far as it brings profit to themselves. 
The literary and scientific enthusiasm of a German 
university has made way for a traffic in brains ; and 
the University of London has good reason to complain 



BESULTS OF EXAMINATION-SYSTEM. Ii3 

that tlie older Tiniversities should liave such a super- 
ahundance of endowments for merely carrying out the 
same objects as itself. It is true that we are at present 
in the full swing of a materialist reaction, of which the 
popular belief in the efl&cacj of examinations, with 
their Spartan drill and degradation of the mind into a 
piece of mechanism, is but a manifestation; but surely 
this was all the more reason for the Universities of 
Oxford and Cambridge to take their stand on better 
principles, and try to stem the invasion of this new 
Chinese culture.^ Many of the mischievous results of 
the examination-system at these ' ancient seats of 
learning,' though now of cram, have already been 
noticed, and they may be summed up under the general 
charge of its destruction of intellectual morality and 
alienation of science and research. Take the senior 
wranglers of the last twenty years, and the number of 
those whose names have since been heard of will be 
found astonishingly small; the brain and energies 
which have been exhausted by examination work in 
youth cannot produce much for the world at large in 

' The Standard of January 2nd, 1875, in an excellent article on 
University Eeform, says, in reference to this point : — ' Down to recent days 
the only idea of the reform of the universities popular with the middle 
classes was to make them teach as much as possible. That there could be 
anything higher or more worthy of an intellectual being than lecturing a 

-class of boys, and setting them examination papers afterwards, nerer 
entered their heads. And whether this spirit may not be as great an 
obstacle to that revival of learning for wliich scholars and philosophers 

.-.are thirsting, as the spirit of an earlier period, which preferred moral 

.results to intellectual, is a question of some difficulty.' 



IM ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

later days. It is not from Oxford and Cambridge that 
the great thinkers and writers of the present generation 
have for the most part come 5 and we are forced to look 
elsewhere for men like Mill or Herbert Spencer, or 
Buckle or Tylor. The works of permanent value that 
issue from the university presses are few and far 
between, and perhaps the character of many of those 
that do makes us little regret that this should be the 
case. Originality, bold speculation, unremunerative 
study, are antithetic to all the qualities fostered by an 
examination. Every year the evil is increasing ; every 
year the traditions of an older and better past are being 
obliterated ; and, unless we awake to the real tendencies 
and consequences of the existing state of things, we 
shall become as fossilised as China itself, content with 
examining and being examined, with ' cramming up ' 
analyses and preparing questions. I have not alluded 
to the injurious effects to health of an examination 
constantly hanging over a man at the most critical 
period of his life, and leaving him with shattered nerves 
and enfeebled frame for future literary work. Few 
who have not experienced it can realise the physical 
misery occasioned to a nervously organised nature by 
an impending and, still more, by a present examination. 
' I shall never get well,' said an undergraduate to me,. 
' as long as I have an examination before me ; ' and the 
result proved that he was right. 'I cannot get the 
examination out of my thoughts night or day,' said 
another ; ' as soon as I settle down to read anything,. 



RESULTS OF EXAMINATION-SYSTEM. 145 

I fancy I ought to be grinding at my grammar.' Nor 
have I alluded to the effects of the system upon the 
examiners themselves, more mischievous even than its 
effects upon the examinees. It is painful to see men 
wasting the strength and talents which might otherwise 
have increased the knowledge of mankind, or helped 
forward the civilisation of posterity, over piles of 
examination-papers, confessing that only the prospect 
of pay, and the necessity of a livelihood, would have 
induced them to undertake the dreary task. As is the 
examinee, so is the examiner ; and a mind accustomed 
only to such work, becomes in time as mechanical and 
trivial as the work itself. 

There is one point, however, which cannot be over- 
looked. Scholarships and exhibitions were once 
founded to enable poor students to enjoy the advan- 
tages of a university life, and to pursue the studies 
from which they would otherwise have been debarred. 
The founders fondly hoped that the object of the 
endowments they had given would never cease to be 
respected, or be diverted from those who cannot 
help themselves to those who can. But we have 
changed all that. Scholars are now elected after 
competitive examination, and the scholarships have 
accordingly become the monopoly of a class wealthy 
enough to afford their sons an expensive education. 
The poor man has no longer a chance. Those alone 
who have gone through the prescribed training of our 
large public schools have much hope of success in an 

L 



146 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

examination wliere Greek and Latin verses, prose and 
translation, are the cliief passports to election. Hebrew 
at Oxford was once placed on the same footing as 
Grreek and Latin — indeed, the Hebrew lectureship at 
some colleges brought with it higher emoluments than 
those in the classical tongues ; but I know of no college 
scholarship now which can be won by the profoundest 
knowledge of the Hebrew language and literature. As 
for our own English tongue, much less Keltic, I need 
harclly add that there is no college scholarship or ex- 
hibition (apart, perhaps, from some connected with 
Jesus College) which recognises their existence. It 
may be doubted whether we have improved upon the 
legacy of the past ; whether our forefathers had not a 
truer conception of a university than we of the present 
time ; whether, after all, an examination is an unmiti- 
gated blessing, and competition the highest good. 

But the climax of mischief is not reached until the 
system is applied to the gaining of a fellowship. In 
most of the Cambridge colleges, indeed, admission to a 
fellowship is determined by a public examination, but 
at Oxford it depends on the tastes and prejudices of a 
small and interested corporation, and in both universi- 
ties it is the result of a single examination, and that, 
too, in subjects which are, at best, but a continuation 
of what has been learned at school. How can we wonder 
that the consequences complained of in the case of the 
Indian Civil Service should equally meet us here ? A 
fellowship, for which the candidate has to thank his 



RESULTS OF EXAMINATION-SYSTEM. 147 

own industry and abilitieSj is likely to be regarded as 
a mere stepping-stone to advancement at the Bar or 
elsewhere, while the unsuccessful candidate turns away 
from his university in bitterness of spirit, and grieves 
over the years he has wasted in seeking to make know- 
ledge pay. But, successful or unsuccessful alike, all 
have passed through the same treadmill, and are ready 
to propagate the new doctrines of competitive examina- 
tion. ' Examination is a bad test,' admits the Pall 
Mall Gazette, * but can you suggest a better ? ' and upon 
this plea, in spite of contrary examples from Germany, 
or even from the older history of our own universities, 
a confessedly bad thing is bolstered up. The argument 
so freely used in the early days of the examination- 
System, that an examination centralises and defines a 
man's reading, is now virtually abandoned, for with 
the present extension and overgrown proportions of 
the system it is no longer applicable, and we are thus 
thrown back upon the ordinary defence set up for 
abuses — that here they are, it would be troublesome 
to remove them, and that something can be said 
against every scheme proposed in their place. Mr. 
Edkins once told me that shortly before leaving China 
he had come across an old gentleman of a hundred and 
six, who was just going in for his last examination. 
Our own system is not yet so perfect; and let us hope 
it never may be, since the end of Chinese culture is 
fossilisation. The endowments of the universities were 
intended for something better than a race of mechani- 

I, 2 



148 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF BESEARCH. 

cally drilled, self-seeking examinees. Until a better 
test can be devised let us indeed keep our final pass 
examination, but let us see that it be passed, not by 
grown-up men as now, but by tbose wbose age is ripe 
for entering upon practical life. The objections urged 
in the foregoing pages tell not so much against a 
modified examination-system, as against a system of 
competition and its application to youths of three or 
four and twenty. If once we can disabuse our minds 
of the belief that success in a competitive examination 
is the modern equivalent of learning, we shall have 
gone far towards restoring the universities to their 
ancient glory and purpose. A new race of disinterested 
students may again grow up among us, while those 
who are intended for a professional or parliamentary 
career will obtain from the university what is after all 
the best education it can give, social intercourse, sym- 
pathetic guidance, and the exhibition of a high ideal. 
England, it is true, is a practical country, but so was 
the England of the founders of the Eoyal Society. 
Competitive examination has really been the experi- 
ment of doctrinaire liberals, and the half-expressed 
dissatisfaction already excited by it shows that the 
experiment has failed. In spite of statutes and news- 
paper articles, there is a truer and nobler education 
than that which consists in being prepared for a com- 
petitive examination. 



149 



Yl. 

unencumbubed ee8eabch: a personal 
e:^pebienge. 

/ 
By Heitet Oxifton Soebt, F.R.S., President of the Hoyal 
Microscopical Society. 

The question which I propose to discuss in the fol- 
lowing pages is whether it is better for the progress 
of original discovery if an investigator is able to devote 
to it his whole time and thought free from the cares 
and duties of any other occupation, or whether it is 
more advantageous for his scientific work that he 
should have some other regular employment, such as 
the management of a business or one of the so-called 
learned professions — educational, legal, medical, or 
otherwise. I am thankful to say that complete immu- 
nity from any such routine employment has been my 
own happy lot, so much so that perhaps objection may 
be made to my conclusions on the ground of my want 
of experience of disturbing occupations ; but still it 
could scarcely be expected that, in the course of nearly 
thirty years of almost uninterrupted practical scientific 
investigation, nothing should occur to distract the atten- 



150 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

tion of any man ; and I need not scruple to say that 
during this period sufficient has occurred to completely 
convince me by personal experience of the truth of my 
general proposition — that original research can be 
carried on in a satisfactory manner only when an 
investigator has abundance of time for work, and 
freedom from those cares which interfere with reflection. 
In such an essay as the present, no kind of good 
could result from my writing on things in general and 
on nothing in particular. I am most anxious to confine 
my remarks to what I know from experience and in my 
own person feel very strongly. In doing this I fear that 
I may be thought somewhat egotistic ; but what in a 
court of justice would be the value of general remarks? 
Do we not want a witness to tell us what he has seen 
and done? Can anyone be more firmly convinced than 
by such experience ? And in order to convince others 
of truth, is it not most essential that a writer should 
be firmly persuaded that what he says is truth ? Only 
if he believes this, can he without hesitation throw his 
whole heart and soul and strength into any struggle 
that may be necessary in order to carry out any im- 
portant application of his opinions. This I think I 
can say of myself in writing this essay, and if I fail 
to convince my readers, it will not be because I am not 
myself convinced by a very considerable amount of 
practical experience. On the whole I may say that my 
entire life has been spent either in scientific research 
or in preparation for it. I am quite willing to admit 



A PERSONAL EXPERIENCE. 151 

tliat I have not been able to do one balf of wbat I 
intended, or should have been glad to accomplish. 
However anxious anyone may be to waste no time, he 
cannot fail to be soon impressed with the vastness of 
science and the shortness of the time that he can 
devote to its study. Judging from my own experience, 
I do not hesitate to say that, for the successful prosecu- 
tion of original enquiry, two of the most essential 
requisites are abundance of time for continuous and 
extended experiments, and freedom from all those 
disturbing cares and engagements which either inter- 
rupt the experiments at critical times or so occupy the 
attention as to prevent the mind from properly digesting 
the results, and deducing from them all the conclusions 
to which they should conduct the investigator. 

Anyone who has had only a very snaall amount of 
experience in original research, must have often been 
struck with the length of time necessary to arrive at a 
comparatively small result. Many experiments cannot 
possibly be made to go on in any other than their own 
slow way. Any attempt to hasten them would probably 
result in a complete loss of all the time spent over some 
previous part of the process, or of material that could 
not be replaced ; and, even with every care, this loss 
cannot always be avoided. Moreover I have found 
that in the long run it is not desirable to attempt to 
carry on several disconnected experiments at the same 
time, since in paying the necessary attention to one, 
the other may go all wrong for want of attention at 



152, ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

some critical point. Taking these and other similar 
facts into consideration, it will easily be seen that very 
much time is an essential requisite for success in 
research. Then again, in studying certain branches of 
science, very many different objects must be carefully 
examined, simply for the purpose of being sure that 
they do not possess particular characters. The amount 
of time occupied by such unsatisfactory and uninterest- 
ing work is often very considerable, and apparently out 
of all reasonable proportion to the value of a negative 
result which can be expressed in a few words. As an 
example of my meaning I will give a case that occurred 
to myself. I found that certain zircons from Ceylon 
gave a most remarkable spectrum, quite unlike that of 
any other mineral or previously known artificial com- 
pound. I afterwards succeeded in preparing opaque 
blow-pipe beads with this zircon, which gave another 
and equally striking spectrum. After many weeks of 
enquiry I found that no single known elementary 
substance would give such a spectrum, and was thus 
led to conclude that some new element was present. 
At length, however, in following out another method 
of enquiry only indirectly connected with the subject, I 
found that the various new spectra were due to a 
compound of zirconia with the oxide of uranium. It 
then became necessary to ascertain whether any other 
substance besides zirconia would, to anything like a 
corresponding extent, modify the normal spectra of 
salts of uranium, and whether the spectrum of any 



A PERSONAL EXPERIENCE. 153 

other substance besides uranium was modified by the 
action of zirconia. For this purpose it was requisite to 
prepare and examine a very large series of opaque 
crystalline blow-pipe beads ; and since only concentrated 
direct sunlight could be made to penetrate through 
them, a very great amount of time was spent in waiting 
to catch occasional bright gleams of sunshine. The 
result of all this labour was to prove that the very 
remarkable modification of the spectra alluded to above 
only occurs in the case of combinations of zirconia with 
the oxides of uranium. Various other new facts were 
learned during the enquiry, but yet on the whole it 
may be said that some months were occupied in proving 
that in most cases there was nothing at all worthy of 
notice. Everyone who has studied a new subject must 
know full well how often such cases occur ; but though 
the negative results are absolutely indispensable for the 
establishment of some positive conclusion, no one who 
had not had experience in original research, on read- 
ing an account of some very simple truth, would be 
able to form any adequate idea of the amount of time 
required for the examination of many collateral ques- 
tions to which little or no allusion is made by the 
author, but which it was necessary to settle in order to 
prove that it was a truth. Very often this is especially 
the case when the amount of work has been the greatest 
and its quality the best. 

If I had been writing this essay for the considera- 
tion of practical scientific men, it would have been 



154 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

altogetlier superfluous to call their attention to such 
facts as these, and I fear lest they should blame me 
for bringing forwards what to them will appear to be 
mere truisms. I am, however, thoroughly persuaded 
that the outside public knows little or nothing of these 
things. The res alts of an extended and laborious 
research are often so simple and almost self-evident, 
when once hnown, that the time required to discover 
them is little likely to strike the reader. They seem 
to have come down (as it were) from heaven ready 
made, and not to have grown up slowl}'" in a terrestrial 
study or laboratory. I am often much struck with 
this fact when I compare the opinions of my scientific 
and unscientific friends on things which I myself have 
done. The one class expresses its astonishment that 
I have been able to do so much (and I had been able 
to do it only by strict economy of time), whilst the 
other wonders how I can possibly manage to fill up a 
life unencumbered with professional duties, without 
entering into all sorts of distractions and amusements. 
I, however, feel sure that anyone who has had 
practical experience in research ; who knows how 
slowly some experiments progress, how many prove 
failures or may be made under false conditions which 
can never lead to good results, and how many must 
often be made before a few rays of light can be 
thrown along a path where previously all was obscure 
darkness; and who also knows the amount of work 
necessary to establish thoroughly even a provisional 



A PERSONAL EXPERIENCE. 155 

conclusion, and to prove that it is tlie light of trntli 
and not a phantom — will agree with me that one of the 
most essential requisites for successful original investi- 
gation is ample time. 

Though this may be generally admitted, yet it 
might be contended that if the amount of time be the 
consideration, science might be equally well advanced 
by the co-operation of a large number of individuals who 
devoted their attention to particular enquiries at 
broken, uncertain, and irregular intervals, and who 
thus, though more slowly, could collectively succeed 
in devoting to each question the necessary total amount 
of time. I will not deny that there are certain branches 
of science which might be slowly advanced in this 
manner, but I do not believe that they would be 
adequately or advantageously advanced. The amount 
of time absolutely lost is greatly increased by this 
disjointed and discontinuous work ; because, not only 
is the train of thought and continuity of operation 
broken, but very often on each occasion when the in- 
vestigation is renewed, various arrangements for the 
experiments have to be made and unmade over and 
over again without any corresponding advantage. 
There are, indeed, many branches of research in which 
the experiments must be in the strict sense of the word 
continuous. The material to be examined must be 
fresh, and must be thoroughly examined as soon as 
possible, since otherwise it would undergo such a 
complete alteration by keeping that the results would 



156 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

be worthless. This is especially true in the case of 
many biological enquiries, and in the study of sub- 
stances met with in living organisms. To attempt to 
arrive at fruitful results by devoting to such subjects 
a few detached hours at distant intervals would be 
almost or altogether fruitless, and might lead to 
positive errors. The only way to arrive at the truth 
is to devote consecutively to the enquiry such a con- 
siderable amount of time as is quite incompatible with 
the performance of the duties of a business or profes- 
sion ; and such as would scarcely be justifiable in the 
case of anyone whose whole time could not be con- 
scientiousl}'' devoted to the advancement of science. 

Though the possession of abundance of time for 
practical investigation is, as I contend, very necessary, 
yet it is only one of the essential conditions. Leisure 
and mental quiet for reflection are not the less necessary. 
Experiments and observations without intelligible con- 
clusions are like a body without a soul, and to accumu- 
late mere facts that lead to no result is often little 
better than waste ' of time. Intelligent investigation 
should consist of a happy union of facts and theories — 
of theories founded on facts, and of the study of those 
facts which a well-devised theorj- shows to be important. 
hy this means the accumulation of an almost un- 
manageable heap of comparatively valueless informa- 
tion is avoided, and attention can be more especially 
devoted to critical and decisive cases. In order to ac- 
complish this, an investigator ought to be able not only 



A PERSONAL EXPERIENCE. 157 

to devote mucli time to observation, but also to apply 
the undivided force of bis intellect to tbe discovery of 
Satisfactory explanations of tbe pbenomena. My own 
experience certainly convinces me tbat tbis cannot be 
done to full advantage if tbe mind is led naturally to 
dwell on some otber more engrossing topic. I bave 
found tbat tbe true solution of puzzling difficulties is 
seldom to be discovered by poring on tbem in tbe 
study. Tbey more frequently flasb across tbe mind 
wben tbe objects tbemselves are not present, and tbe 
investigator is tbrown amongst entirely different 
scenes. If tben be is so circumstanced as to bave time 
for quiet reflection, and bis mind is neitber diverted 
by otber occupations, nor absorbed by pressing cares, 
but is ever eager and ready to appreciate tbe bearing 
on tbe scientific difficulty tbat faces bim of every cir- 
cumstance that may occur or object that he may see, tbe 
probability is tbat tbe difficulty will soon vanisb. 

Instead of treating tbis as a general question, it will 
be better again to give a few illustrations drawn from my 
own experience. I do tbis tbe more willingly, because 
I often feel tbat it would be very interesting to know 
sometbing of tbe bistory of tbe various steps tbat have 
led to tbe discoveries made by otber investigators, about 
wbicb we often know notbing at all. 

Tor some time I bad been occupied witb tbe study of 
tbe microscopical structure of rocks possessing slaty 
cleavage, a problem wbicb bad previously attracted mucb 
attention, but was still involved in so mucb obscurity tbat 



168 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

several tlieories all equally unsatisfactory had been pro- 
pounded. The more I studied the microscopical structure 
of these cleaved rocks, the more was I puzzled with the 
observed facts. One day when quietly walking in my 
garden and reflecting on things in general, the simplest 
possible explanation of the whole flashed across my mind. 
I immediately went into my work-room, mixed some 
small pieces of coloured paper with wet pipeclay, and 
on compressing them in the manner that slate rocks 
are proved to have been compressed, I found that I 
obtained a very good representation of the characteristic 
structure on which their cleavage depends. From that 
moment forwards the whole theory of cleavage took a 
new shape in my mind, and after studying by experi- 
ment, with the microscope and in the field, those facts 
which this new hypothesis indicated as important, in a 
few years I had the satisfaction of finding that it was 
universally adopted as a perfectly satisfactory explana- 
tion of one of the great phenomena of geology. In a 
somewhat similar manner I was led to perceive the 
true nature of the physical conditions under which 
certain kinds of rocks are formed at a great depth 
below the surface of the earth. Their microscopical 
structure had been most puzzling. The evidence of ig- 
neous fusion and of the presence of liquid water were 
about equally strong, and for some lime it seemed diffi- 
cult to adopt any theory which assumed either an ig- 
neous or aqueous origin of such minerals and rocks. 
All at once the correct explanation flashed upon me. 



A PERSONAL EXPERIENCE. 159 

Both igneous and aqueous action must have occurred 
more or less simultaneously, and the facts which I 
published have, as I believe, had no small share in 
causing such a tjieory to be almost universally accepted 
by geologists. 

In studying the structure of meteorites the evidence 
of original igneous fusion became stronger and stronger, 
even in the case of the iron masses containing much 
olivine. This comparatively uniform distribution of such 
a heavy metal as iron, and of such a relatively light 
mineral as olivine, appeared the more to be incom- 
patible with igneous fusion the more one became ac- 
quainted with what occurs in our furnaces. In the 
case of a melted mass of metallic iron and slag the 
separation is all but complete, and no such thing as an 
uniform mixture is to be found. For a long time this 
circumstance remained a puzzle 5 but in walking out in 
the country one summer evening, some trivial circum- 
stance long since forgotten led me to perceive that the 
almost immediate separation of the metal and the slag 
was due to the powerful attraction of our earth, and 
that in any situation where the force of gravitation was 
very weak, no such separation would occur. The 
general conclusion then became very simple. Meteoric 
masses of iron and olivine must have cooled from a 
state of fusion either as small masses in free space, or 
near the centre of larger planets. So far as I am aware, 
the truth of this explanation has never been questioned. 

There is a peculiar structure met with in rocks called 



160 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

* cone in cone.' I had long tried to explain it, but in 
vain. One day in arranging some specimens a chance 
ray of bright light fell on one of them. I observed a 
peculiar reflection, as if from a multitude of small facets 
of crystals, lying in nearly the same plane, though in 
very different parts of the specimen. This fact led me 
to study the structure from a new point of view, and in 
a short time all the peculiarities were explained in a 
perfectly satisfactory manner. 

Not to take my illustrations exclusively from one 
class of objects, I will describe one or two other cases. 
Tor many years, in common with all who had studied 
the subject, I had referred the position of the absorp- 
tion bands seen in the spectra of various colouring 
matters to an artificial scale, or in a few instances to 
the principal Fraunhofer lines. One day, however, 
whilst rambling over the quiet hills of Derbyshire, it oc- 
curred to me, apparently quite accidentally, that such a 
system had no physical foundation, and that the true 
method was to express the position of all parts of the 
spectrum in terms of the wave-lengths of the light at each 
part. I at once set to work to contrive the means for 
doing this conveniently, and it was not long before I suc- 
ceeded. Now that the plan has been once adopted I 
wonder how it was possible to adopt any other, since 
it is so simple and self-evidently correct. I am glad to 
find that everyone who has expressed an opinion fully 
agrees with me in thinking that for the future this plan is 
the one that must be generally employed. So far as I 



A PERSONAL EXPERIENCE. 161 

am able to judge, its adoption will almost reTolutionise 
the study of many questions connected with the subject, 
and cause us to look upon a great number of most im- 
portant facts from an entirely new and more correct 
point of view. 

It would be easy to multiply such examples and to 
show the manner in which one train of ideas led to 
another. Very often the circumstances and train of 
ideas that have led to a discovery were immediately for- 
gotten in the face of the result, like the scaffolding used 
in the erection of some stately building ; and some- 
times the circumstances were connected with the main 
question in so ridiculous a manner that it would be 
altogether inappropriate to describe them. 

What I have said will, however, I hope, be sufficient 
to prove the truth of my general proposition, which I 
may sum up thus, — It is said that in mechanical con- 
structions, in the long run, the dead pressure of an 
easily moving screw will not counteract the living and 
ever-acting force of a spring which, as it were, takes 
advantage of every vibration or change of temperature 
disturbing the screw, to move it always in one particular 
direction. In a similar manner, if the mind of an in- 
vestigator is ready to take advantage of every circum- 
stance that may occur, to press forward his enquiry in 
the line of truth, the removal of the most formidable 
difficulties is only a question of time. For my own 
part, I have generally a tolerably large stock of such 
questions on hand ; and though in some cases I waited 

M 



It32 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

for years before I arrived at the true solution, yet at 
length some comparatively trifling circumstance pre- 
sented itself and the difficulty ceased to exist. 

There is also another importa.nt consideration inti- 
mately related to my subject. It has been said, and I 
think very justly, that for success in life a man must 
have a healthy body as well as a soul. I can scarcely 
believe that what I have been advocating is compatible 
with such a course of life as leads to decay of health 
and strength, and with the mind being diverted by the ail- 
ments of the body. My own conclusion is that, to ensure 
this, no small amount of time is necessary for that re- 
pose and physical activity which are both essential for 
health, and which if neglected for the sake of saving 
time, will in the long run cause the loss of a far larger 
amount of time by diminished energy and shortened 
life. I am the unflinching champion of such a well re- 
gulated life, and of such a judicious combination of 
work for the body and work for the mind, as may secure 
the greatest amount of both physical and intellectual 
activity for the longest period. One cannot but regret 
to see that in so many cases too much haste, even in 
study itself, is bad speed ; and into this course many 
are apt to be led who wish to do more than time will 
properly allow, and they suffer accordingly. 

Perhaps some of my readers may think that many 
things which I have pointed out as desirable for the 
successful prosecution of research are very good in 
theory, but that they could rarely be carried out in 



A PERSONAL EXPERIENCE. 163 

practice. I am quite willing to admit that the phy- 
sical and mental character of many individuals would 
scarcely allow of their carrying out such a plan as 1 
have sketched, but at the same time I am none the less 
convinced that it is a possible standard, and certainly 
the thing to aim at for the progress of discovery. Even 
those who might deny the possibility of such a kind 
of life will, I think, admit that if it were possible it 
would do much to advance scientific knowledge. One 
thing, however, is clear, and cannot be denied ; no one 
can even remotely approach to this mode of life 
and continuous observation whose mind is constantly 
engrossed with other cares — whose thoughts are neces- 
sarily directed to the consideration of how he can pro- 
vide for the needs of each coming day, or how he can 
extricate himself from or avoid pecuniary embarrass- 
ment. Whatever the experience of others may lead them 
to think, mine has been amply sufficient to convince me 
that I never could have done what I have been able to 
do, if it had been necessary for me to attend to any busi- 
ness or profession as a means of support. Though I 
wish I had been able to do more, yet if I had been inter- 
rupted by the cares of practical life I should certainly 
have done far less, and in all probability the general 
quality of the work would have deteriorated to a still 
greater extent, since the opportunity and inclination to 
attack wide branches of enquiry would have been 
greatly reduced. I am very far from being one of 
those who think that everyone should do the same 

M 2 



164 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

thing, or that precisely the same conditions are the 
best for all. I give the results of my own experience, 
and must at the same time say that I think that 
they apply with more or less truth to the majority of 
cases. 

It may, however, be said tliat though attention to 
an ordinary business or profession may thus interfere 
with the prosecution of original research in any parti- 
cular branch of science, yet the duties of a professor 
of that same branch might not only not interfere, but 
be a positive advantage. It has indeed been urged 
that the mind and character are steadied by a routine 
employment, and that this steadiness acts upon the 
quality of the scientific work done in the residual time. 
I will not deny the possibility of this in some cases. 
Some individuals may be met with who are so unbusi- 
nesslike and unmethodical in their actions that it 
may be desirable for them to wear constantly some 
such sort of a strait jacket to keep them within any- 
thing like reasonable bounds, just as we may find some 
who will never do right when it is possible for them to do 
wrong. It would, nevertheless, I think, be very unwar- 
rantable to conclude that any large proportion of those 
who are able and willing to devote themselves to a 
truly scientific career are characterised by such a 
moral weakness. If the conscientious study of natural 
science is not sufficient to give a man enough ballast 
and fly-wheel to insure steady and continuous activity, I 
should look upon him as being thereby unsuited for 



A PERSONAL EXPERIENCE. 165 

such an avocation. If he had such a failing it would 
soon make itself apparent in his work, and, like all other 
failings in mind or bodj, would have to be taken into 
account in deciding whether or no he were a suitable 
person to be further entrusted with the duties of a 
scientific investigator. Leaving, then, such exceptional 
cases to be dealt with in an exceptional manner, I will 
proceed to consider conditions of another kind. 

I must say that my own personal feeling is alto- 
gether in favour of a student devoting, as much as 
possible, his chief attention to one special object at a 
time. We all know the saying about running after 
two hares at once and catching nothing, and I am very 
strongly inclined to believe that few men can undertake 
with advantage more than a very limited number of 
occupations. If they do this in such a manner as to 
make one employment the chief concern, and the rest 
give way and accommodate themselves, and serve 
merely to occupy otherwise vacant intervals, or simply 
as recreation, it may not only do no harm but much 
good, though the secondary engagements must almost 
necessarily suffer. My maxim is — make a machine do 
its own special work to perfection, and do not try to 
make it do several different things all badly. 

It is very far indeed from my desire to underrate 
the value of scientific instruction. Discoveries would 
be of little public good if a knowledge of them were 
restricted to a few. It is of course very important 
that they should be made the general property of the 



166 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

community, and this can scarcely be done without the aid 
of scientific instructors of one kind or another — either 
of professors who teach their own classes, or of popular 
expounders who address a wider circle through their 
writings. This is, strictly speaking, the diffusion of 
science, and must not be confounded with its increase. 
Indirectly it no doubt does generally lead to ad- 
vancement, but not necessarily; the teaching and 
writing may only relate to what has been long known, 
and, even under the most favourable circumstances, 
can only be the means of utilising recent discoveries. 
The very wide extent of nearly every department of 
science makes the successful diffusion of it by lectures 
or other means sufficient to occupy the principal part 
of one man's attention, and, though a certain amount of 
original work may be and no doubt is very desirable 
for this purpose, yet I feel convinced that in the long 
run the active combination of both cannot be satisfac- 
tory. Possibly a few remarkable and exceptional cases 
may occur of men who accomplish marvels in both 
spheres of activity, and it is probably desirable that 
some should thus serve to unite them and infuse the 
spirit of discovery into the teaching of what is known, 
and at the same time treat new and growing truths in 
a popular and attractive manner. But nothing, in my 
opinion, is more undesirable than that everyone should 
be cast in the same mould, and for that very reason 
I would contend that for the advancement of science it 
is very undesirable that the burden of original work 



A PERSONAL EXPERIENCE. 167 

should devolve on those necessarily engaged in teaching 
or popular writing. 

Considering, then, in the first place, the effect of 
personal teaching in the case of a professor at some 
university, there can be no doubt that as a rule it would 
be impossible to carry on investigations at the same time 
in a perfectly satisfactory manner. The preparation and 
delivery of lectures would, or at all events ought to 
occupy a large part of the professor's time, which time 
must necessarily be abstracted from that which might 
be devoted to discovery ; and moreover it is work that 
must be attended to regularly at stated times, which 
kind of interference, as I have shown, is often so disad- 
vantageous on account of its breaking the continuity oj 
experimental research. The constant need of attention 
to the collecting together and arranging of facts already 
known, which have no very direct bearing on the 
special subject under investigation, necessarily diverts 
the thoughts from the consideration of difficulties not 
yet explained and from the discovery of what is un- 
known. My own experience, at all events, convinces 
me that any such diversion of the mind has a most 
retarding effect in carrying on original research, and I 
have heard the same remark from some of the most 
eminent explorers of our age. 

These general principles apply, secondly, with still 
greater force in the case of those who are compelled to 
support themselves by a trade or profession, even when 
it requires the application of scientific knowledge. I 



168 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

here except those who are employed to carry out what 
really are original enquiries in connexion with some of 
our large manufactories. Such positions present great 
facilities for the advancement of certain branches of 
science, and many cases could be cited where they are 
turned to the best account. Such positions might 
almost be called an endowment for research. The care 
of a business or profession is a totally different thing. 
The general public is strongly impressed with the idea 
that a man cannot, so to speak, serve two masters ; 
and I know very well that some who could do admirable 
service to literature or science, and have accumulated 
abundant and valuable material, are restrained from 
making it of general use by publication from the know- 
ledge of the fact that the public would not generally 
patronise a professional man who, as they say, has a 
hobby. To some extent, no doubt, this is a reasonable 
apprehension. I knew a case where a provincial medical 
man lost a valuable appointment which he had held 
for some years mainly because he had endeavoured to 
promote the study of geology in one of the finest 
geological districts in the whole country. As in the 
case of most popular opinions, there are probably good 
grounds for this hostility to what are called literary 
and scientific ' hobbies.' Probably a taste for such 
pursuits does more or less divert the mind of a profes- 
sional man from the practical part of his profession ; and 
yet some members of this same public would be so in- 
consistent as to think that a savant might successfully 



A PERSONAL EXPERIENCE. 169 

perform Ms duty as an original investigator, and at the 
same time be necessarily occupied witli a business or 
profession. I do not for one moment wish it to be 
thought that I do not fully value and appreciate a 
useful and active life of every kind. All that I contend 
for is that, for the general advantage of a civilised 
community, it is essential that there should also be 
some who can devote themselves completely and exclu- 
sively to the discovery of new truths. 

I am quite ready to admit that many of the above 
remarks would apply with far less force to the adoption 
of popular writing as a means of support to enable a 
student to carry on original research. Popular scientific 
works are no doubt of very great value as a means of 
instruction and for the spread of scientific knowledge. 
In some cases they may truly rank with original dis- 
coveries, as gathering together or presenting in a new 
way what is already known. I am also quite willing to 
admit that the composition of a comprehensive work on 
some special subject may be of the greatest value to the 
writer in pointing out to him what is necessary to make 
his researches complete. It is also no doubt very de- 
sirable that even popular works should be written by 
those who are practical masters of their subject, and not 
by those whose knowledge is confined to and derived 
from books. The natural demand for such com- 
positions as will sell* is pretty certain to lead to a 
supply, and it would be unfortunate if anything were 
done to prevent this. But when we come to look upon 



170 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

this as the source of support for all or even a consider- 
able number of the men needed for carrying out origi- 
nal investigations, the case is entirely altered. Some 
branches of science are not sufficiently appreciated to 
make popular books about them sell, and even if one or 
two such works might be profitable, yet with increased 
numbers this would not be the case. Then, again, look 
at the general effect on original research of a student 
being compelled to adopt such a means for support. 
Would he not choose subjects that would ' pay ' rather 
than those which were the most necessary for the in- 
crease of scientific knowledge, as was the case with an 
acquaintance of mine, who had written at least one 
valuable original work on natural history, and wrote a 
very indifferent novel merely because the former did 
not pay and the latter did ? Of course discoveries are 
of no use if not made known, and they can scarcely be 
made known without writing and publishing, but the 
eventual publication of such work? is an entirely dif- 
ferent thing from making a living by popular writing. 
How very few, if any, of our best discoveries would even 
pay for the expense of publication, to say nothing of 
supporting a man during the time necessary for making 
them ! All the time spent over writings, other than 
those necessary to make the discoveries known, must be 
subtracted from that required for making the discoveries, 
and conversely, all time spent over original work must 
be deducted from that required for writing for profit. 
Even Mr. Proctor, who has argued so strenuously in 



A PERSONAL EXPERIENCE. 171 

favour of this means of support for those engaged in 
original research, speaks of the latter as a ' dangerous 
taste,' ' as if he well knew that it is not only unremune- 
rative, but also interferes with what is remanerative, 
and is thus very likely to be neglected when a man 
must do extraneous work to gain his living. 

The success of any scheme for the endowment of 
research must depend on whether it will be possible 
to find young men of talent who would devote them- 
selves to the business of original scientific research, 
provided that ilciQj could thereby insure such an in- 
come as could be reasonably expected in a profession 
in which the kind of work and the social position were 
everything that could be desired. I must say that I 
fully believe that such could be found, and in fact I 
could name several noble examples of the very sort 
wanted. Looking at the question from a national 
point of view, one cannot but feel that to enable such 
men to occupy their whole time over the valuable work 
which they are both able and willing to do, is out of 
all proportion more important than rewarding a youth 
who has passed a successful examination in such a 
way that the public gains little or nothing from the 
expenditure. If it were an abstract question which 
had to be decided before one or the other system were 
adopted for the first time, and if none of the inertia of 
long custom had to be overcome, few would, I think, 
doubt the result. It is, however, not a question of 

' Wages and Wants of Science Workers (Smith, Elder, & Co. 1876), p. 9. 



172 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

adopting one system or tlie other alone, but rather 
such a relative amount of both as would be most for 
the benefit of the community. 

The subject of the endowment of study and re- 
search is a question that has for some years attracted 
my attention, not merely in the abstract, but with a 
view to immediate and practical ends. Much of what 
has been argued against such endowments appears to 
me to have force not so much against the general prin- 
ciple as against what I regard as a wrong application 
of it. Some have urged that it would lead to no good 
result, because when once such an appointment had 
been obtained, a person who had worked hard as a can- 
didate would become idle as soon as the need for work 
ceased to exist. Precaution should be taken to avoid 
a conclusion so lame and impotent as this. Every- 
thing should be so regulated that good and efficient 
men may not be driven back by the feeling of uncer- 
tain tenure, and at the same time that it may be im- 
possible for a man, when once he has obtained an ap- 
pointment, to pocket the money and do no more work. 
Unless such a thing were rendered impossible there 
would be little advantage in changing the present sys- 
tem. The conclusion to which I have come is that any- 
one who has the will and ability for original work 
may very safely be appointed for a certain number of 
years, and after that reappointed every year or every 
two years as long as he continues to discharge his 
duties in an efficient manner. I do not think there 



A PERSONAL EXPERIENCE. 173 

• 
would generally and in practice be any difficulty in decid- 
ing whether he did so. Though a great amount of ex- 
cellent scientific work may produce a very small show, 
yet almost anyone who had had practical experience 
of original research could easily see whether adequate 
work had been done, or time passed in laborious idle- 
ness. In the case of residents in a university I can 
scarcely believe a mistake to be possible, since in such 
a community the character and actions of a man are 
generally known. 

I must say that I doubt the policy of much inter- 
ference with the chosen studies of an enquirer. If en- 
dowed with a reasonable amount of talent, the probabi- 
lity is that he will naturally select the best course for 
himself. I know this very well from my own experi- 
ence, as some of the most eminent men of the day have 
endeavoured to deter me from studying the very sub- 
jects which have ultimately led to results so consider- 
able and important, that they would now be very much 
ashamed of having expressed such an opinion. I pre- 
sume that this kind of opposition does sometimes occur 
when a young man brings forward any new and strik- 
ing facts which most forcibly tell against the conclu- 
sions or theories of former days. In making regula- 
tions for the endowment of research, care should be 
taken to avoid this kind of dictation, and to allow as 
much room as possible for the intellectual expansion 
of the individual. 

Though the amount of knowledge gained is cer- 



174 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

tainlj not in direct proportion to the amount of money- 
spent over its acquirement, and though very often much 
may be learned from the study of the commonest ob- 
jects, yet even under the most favourable circumstances 
a long and laborious research might never lead to a 
satisfactory result without the expenditure of a very 
considerable annual sum. This is especially the case 
in physical researches, which require costly appara.tus. 
Many most important discoveries would have been lost 
to the world if it had not been for the pecuniary assist- 
ance afforded by the Government Grant Committee of 
the Eoyal Society, by the British Association, and the 
like. But it can scarcely be expected that unusually 
large expenses should be defrayed out of the annual 
sum allowed to an investigator to meet his own private 
wants. They ought rather to be provided for in some 
other manner ; but it may be doubted whether it is 
desirable that every expense attending on research 
should be thus defrayed, instead of being paid oat of 
the general income allowed for maintenance. Both 
systems would have their advantages and disadvantages, 
and very much would depend on the character of each 
particular individual, and on whether his desire to do 
his duty had more influence on his conduct than self- 
interest or indolence. It appears to me difficult to form 
any very confident opinion as to the amount of annual in- 
come to be paid to each that would be most conducive 
to the general advancement of science, on account of 
the whole system having been, so far, almost untried. The 



A PERSONAL EXPERIENCE. 175 

character of the occupation and social position must be 
taken into account as well as mere money value. This 
latter, however, should be sufficient to attract and per- 
manently attach to the work of research men of the 
highest intellectual capacity, and enable them to enjoy 
those material advantages which they could obtain if 
they devoted their time and talents to any business or 
profession not necessarily involving a greater amount 
of personal discomfort. Much beyond this does not ap- 
pear to me desirable, since too ample means might 
often lead to habits of life tending rather to diminish 
than to increase intellectual activity. Though I 
scarcely feel able to give a decided opinion on this 
question, yet, judging from what I know of the salaries 
paid to men of first-rate talent for business or profes- 
sional work in provincial towns, an annual income 
advancing from 600L to 1,000Z. might be adopted in 
the first instance, and subsequently modified, if found 
necessary or desirable Avhen the whole system became 
better understood from experience. 



EXAMPLES 



]!«• 



179 



VII. 

THE MAINTENANCE OF THE STUDY OF 
THE BIBLE. 
Y 
By Thomas Kelly Ohetne, M.A., Fellow and Lecturer of Balliol 

College, Oxford. 

OxFOKD, 'the home of lost causes and impossible 
beliefs,' is not the quarter from which a complaint 
might be expected of the discouraging position of 
theology. For the gentlemen who enlighten the world 
in the periodical press are never wearj of rebuking the 
undue prominence in Oxford of the theological point 
of view. And, if we go back but a few decads, most 
of the more prominent leaders of religious thought in 
England (the late Mr. Maurice and Dr. Martineau are 
the exceptions), have issued from her colleges. Least 
of all might it be expected of the present writer, who 
owes not a little to the theological appropriation of 
endowments, to express on behalf of theologians a 
sense of unfair treatment. And yet all these surprises 
are in store for the reader. It is maintained in the 
following pages that theology, though on everyone's 
lips, is all but entirely neglected in this university, 

N 2 



180 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

and tliat in any radical cliange in the disposition of 
endowments, tlieology — historical theology — has a 
strong claim to be considered. Of course there is a 
certain sense in which the opinion of the periodical 
press is justified. Theology is all but paramount in 
Oxford, but it is a theology without a solid basis of 
fact. There is among us no critical study of theology 
whatever ; at least, if pursued at all, it is in holes and 
corners, where the light of official favour never pene- 
trates. The theology of Oxford is dogmatic Angli- 
canism; its scientific basis is that of two centuries 
ago; in other words, it is not scientific at all. For 
until the revival of philological studies in Germany 
in the last century, the critical conscience among 
theological writers lay entirely dormant. Lutherans, 
Anglicans, or Catholics, they started from certain pre- 
conceived ideas, which had to be supported at all 
hazards. There was no separation of the diS'erent 
branches of theology — a mechanical systematisation of 
the dry bones of dogma reigned supreme. 

Now it is no function of mine either to attack or 
to defend Anglican theology. I quarrel with no one 
for entertaining the hope that Anglicanism may yet 
be so purified as to serve for a theological basis to 
English religion for a long time to come. All that I 
am concerned to affirm is that historical theology is 
neither the friend nor the foe of any dogmatic system. 
It pursues its own way, oJine Hast ohne Bast, and the 
religious systems will, if they are to last, have to as- 



MAINTENANCE OF THE STUDY OF THE BIBLE. 181 

similate its results, even at the cost of some tempo- 
rary uneasiness. By historical theology I mean the' 
historical investigation of religion ; and without 
venturing to define its precise limits, which indeed are 
broadening day by day, I may safely assume that it is 
largely concerned with the early Jewish and Christian 
literature. It becomes natural, then, to enquire what 
amount of encouragement is actually given in the 
universities to the historical study of the Bible. 

From the very first, the right of existence of this 
study has been dimly recognised in Oxford and 
Cambridge. The militant attitude of the Church 
compelled her to defend her position by linguistic and 
historical studies. On no other ground can the inclu- 
sion of a professorship of Hebrew among theological 
chairs be accounted for or justified. The wonder is 
that Arabic was not included too. Tor it was owing 
to the earnest solicitations of Raymond LuUy, that an 
ordinance was passed in the Council of Vienne in 1311, 
for the establishment of chairs of the Semitic languages 
at Paris, Oxford, and Salamanca. And it is well 
known that the main point with Raymond Lully (who 
by the way would have been just the man for one of 
Mr. Max Miiller's missionary fellowships), was the 
conversion of the Mohammedans. The Hebrew pro- 
fessorship, then, whether we take it as a substitute for 
an old readership, or as a late carrying out of that wise 
Vienne recommendation, is an evidence of a nascent 
perception of the philological basis of theology. And 



182 OiV THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

it is presumably to the same feeling tliat two of our 
newest theological professorships in Oxford are due, 
namely, those of Biblical Exegesis and Ecclesiastical 
History. It is, however, no injury to the able men 
who now occupy these chairs to say that they have no 
special interest in the philological side of theology. 
Cambridge, indeed, all deductions made, is better oif ; 
but this is owing to pure accident. For there is 
nothing in the title or conditions of the professorships 
held by Drs. Westcott, Lightfoot, and Perowne, to bind 
them to a philological treatment of the sources of 
Christianity. In other words, there are but four per- 
sons in the two old universities who can be plausibly 
said, in virtue of their of8.ce, to represent historical 
theology, three (the Professors of Hebrew, Exegesis, 
and Church History) in Oxford, and one (the Professor 
of Hebrew) in Cambridge. 

I desire to speak with all possible respect of the 
services rendered by all the professorships of theolog}', 
whether from the dogmatic or the philological side. As 
' cities set on a hill,' they have stimulated the ambi- 
tion of many a laborious student. From time to time 
they have been occupied by men of more than 
academical renown. And even in the worst of times 
they have contributed to keep up the specially Anglican 
tradition of a learned clergy. 

But the fact remains that only four of their number 
have any ofScial tie to historical theology. Will it be 
maintained that so scanty a staff of investigators is 



MAINTENANCE OF THE STUDY OF THE BIBLE. ]83 

adequate? Not by anyone who considers the many 
directions in which this study ramifies (see conclusion) ; 
not even, I believe, by the majority of the governing 
bodies of colleges. There is but little doubt that 
several colleges would at once set apart fellowships for 
historical theology, could they be secure that men of 
real power would offer themselves. At Oxford, this 
has even been done — twice since my own fellowship 
(including, however, a nomination of Mr. Baring's in 
Hertford College), but the benefits accruing therefrom 
to mature study are not yet visible. At Cambridge, the 
colleges have persistently refused to award fellowships 
for theology. And that with perfect justice, under 
existing circumstances. For though the Cambridge 
theological tripos is preferable to the party-scheme 
imposed on Oxford University by the non-academical 
element in Congregation, it is not and cannot be a 
seminary of critical theologians. Its aim is and must 
be purely practical, and on no possible theory of 
academical reform can the funds of the Colleges be 
distributable among practical theologians. I have not 
yet come to the question how men of capacity for 
critical theology are to be obtained. At present I 
only wish to get the fact recognised, that, if this study 
is to make progress, its representatives (granting that 
they exist somewhere) must be subsidised by the 
Colleges. 

To the first part of this proposition no reasonable 
objection can be taken. Theological study is clearly 



mi ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

not the way to keep the wolf from the door. Grinding 
glasses, like Spinoza, would be a more lucrative occu- 
pation. The second part may seem more open to ques- 
tion. Why by the Colleges and not by the University 
— by fellowships and not by professorships P For this 
reason. Study is only one of the objects of the latter ; 
it is, at least in theory, the sole object of the former. 
The professor is placed in the University to teach ; and 
the pupils of the professors of theology are exclusively 
composed of those who hope to become working clergy- 
men. Now, of a working clergyman, more than of any 
other man, may it be said that ' he must not live unto 
himself.' I do not say that he may not give the mar- 
gins of his time to the investigation of some outlying 
field of historical theology. But he cannot and ought 
not to prosecute his studies to the point where they 
may impinge on generally received opinions. Ordinary 
people cannot separate between the permanent and 
transitory elements of religion. This, no doubt, is an 
infirmity, but an infirmity to which the shepherd of 
souls will condescend. True, the professor of theology 
is not, in the ordinary sense, a working clergyman, but 
as the trainer of those who are destined to become 
such, he is subject to the same conscientious limita- 
tions as his pupils. It is his duty to take care that 
the religious tradition is handed down unbroken ; puri- 
fied, if you please, by the progressive assimilation of 
new facts, but still fundamentally unbroken. By so 
doing, he consults the interests of the State as well as 



MAINTENANCE OF THE STUDY OF THE BIBLE. 185 

of the Churcli. For it was on the eve of the greatest 
of modern revolutions that the startling observation 
was made, ' Who would believe it ? the body which has 
the fewest prejudices is the clergy ? ' ^ 

And yet the scientific investigation of facts cannot 
be stopped. Nor would it be like the ' wise modera- 
tion ' of the Church of England to attempt to stop it. 
Hers is the lofty ideal to reconcile the aspirations of 
religious natures with the best culture of the age. 
Unfortunately, the best culture of the age is at present 
crude and hesitating. New facts in natural science 
and in history^ new theories in philosophy, are daily 
pushing out their predecessors. Historical theology 
itself is in a fluid state, such as may well disquiet 
superficial observers. Leave it to those who are guilt- 
less of all scientific training, and you will only intensify 
the evils you desire to avert. Trust to the professors 
of theology to do the work of utterly fearless investi- 
gators, and from the very depth of their conscientious- 
ness they will disappoint you. 

Already voices are heard in Glermany and Holland 
demanding the abolition of the theological faculties, 
and the redistribution of their subjects among the 
other departments. It would be unhappy for the cause 
of temperate progress if our own theological professor- 
ships should some day arouse as decided a hostility. 
There is but one way, so far as I can see, to avoid this, 
and that is to liberate the official teachers cf theology 

' Taine, Les origines de la France contem^poraine, i. 383. 



136 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

from the duty of investigation. Or if it be suggested — 
the wilfuhiess of critics knows no bounds — that this 
duty is not generally recognised on the part of the pro- 
fessors, to grant a theoretical sanction to their lapse of 
memory. In short, they have hitherto been embar- 
rassed with two incompatible functions. Transfer the 
one which is on the whole secondary to a new body of 
theological fellows, and the problem before us will be 
solved. Let it be the professor's business to teach can- 
didates for the clerical office ; not indeed to set his 
face against criticism, but to present its best results in 
such a form as will most easily harmonise with the 
religious tradition. Of course, this will not prevent 
him from making fruitful researches in such a subject 
as the Textual Criticism of the New- Testament. But 
let the scientific investigation of the history of Chris- 
tianity be confided to a separate body of competent 
and responsible persons. The two functions are equally 
honourable, and supplement each other. 

I am here brought into contact with an original and 
interesting pamphlet by Mr. Burgon,' the new Dean of 
Chichester, He too is seriously disquieted by the low 
state of theological learning in the Church of England, 
and urges three reasons for giving a larger measure 
of encouragement to theology. These are, first, 
the importance of having a learned clergy; secondly, 

' Plea for the Study of Divinity in Oxford, by John "William Burgon, 
B.D., Vicar of St. Mary-the- Virgin's, Fellow of Oriel College, &c. Oxford 
and London : James Parker & Co. 1875. 



MAINTENANCE OF THE STUDY OF THE BIBLE. 187 

the extensiveness of the field of theological enquiry ; 
thirdly, the fact that ' our colleges were demonstrably 
founded in the main for the promotion of theological 
science.' On_the first and second of these heads it is 
not necessary to enlarge, much as I sympathise with 
the learned author's complaint. On the third, I may 
remark that while accepting the premisses, I draw a dif- 
ferent conclusion from Mr. Burgon. That the founders 
of the older colleges intended to promote theology is a 
good reason why that subject should not be excluded 
from a share in the endowments, but not why theolo- 
gical fellowships should be confined to clergymen. Our 
pre-E,eformation benefactors composed statutes with a 
view to pre-Eeformation circumstances. They were con- 
vinced that religion and science are conterminous, and 
that the natural result of a proper exercise of reason 
would be the confirmation of existing beliefs. Unfor- 
tunately it is no longer possible^ to legislate on this 
assumption. We may say that we hope, or even that 
we believe, but not that (in a scientific sense) we know 
such to be the fact. 

The theological fellowships, then, advocated in the 
present essay, are diametrically opposite in character to 
those of the Dean of Chichester. His would be con- 
fined to clergymen ; mine would be free, the only con- 
dition being that of scientific competence. I am quite 
aware that we cannot get this condition satisfied by 
such examinations as are at present customary. There 
is indeed plenty of material in Oxford and Cambridge, 



188 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

but it is injured for purposes of research by the pecu- 
liar educational systems of those places. At any rate, 
the effect of having gone through the classical schools 
at Oxford seems to be for a time to impair the critical 
faculty. Such at least is the result of my own experience 
in Oxford. Intellectual curiosity no doubt there is in 
abundance, but there is no method in it ; it is not con- 
trolled by the historical sense. But is it necessary tliat 
the theological fellows should be young men fresh from 
the schools and triposes ? I could myself mention half- 
a-dozen names of competent persons who would do much 
better work in historical theology with a little more 
worldly prosperity. Why not give fellowships at once 
to such men, to show that we are in earnest, and do not 
intend to blush any longer for our national universities ? 
Of course this is not sufS.cient to repair our long neglect 
of historical theology. At present, to be suspected of 
being an investigator in this field is tantamount at 
Oxford to exclusion from all academical patronage. 
This suicidal policy ought to be at once abandoned. 
Those who are competent to teach historical criticism 
(of course without reference to the theological school 
or tripos), and to act as sign-posts to capable students, 
should be sought out and encouraged. Travelling 
scholarships should be founded for young men of small 
means to complete their studies at a German university. 
Only when a man has finished his training, and proved 
his competence by some published investigation, "should 
he be appointed to a fellowship. No doubt there are 



MAINTHXANCH OF THE STUDY OF THE BIBLE. 189 

difficult questions of detail, such as graduation of pay- 
ment, &c., but these will soon be settled, if we can but 
overcome that greatest of all obstacles — the half-belief 
of the friends of research. 

At the same time it must be remarked that the ordi- 
nary Oxford fellowships, the value of which is currently 
exaggerated, are not lucrative enough to meet our re- 
quirements. The evil effects of the system are even 
now observable. If, by some happy chance, a fellow 
has a turn for historical theology, and does not wish to 
live like a German professor, he adopts one of two 
courses. (1) He in due course accepts a college living. 
This, however, in the present strained relations of 
science and faith, is the most dangerous course he can 
adopt. It is admitted on all hands that theological 
opinion is in a transitional stage. New facts are con- 
stantly coming to light, which may one day be, but as 
yet have not been, assimilated by the religious tradition. 
I fully admit, on the one hand, that some ordination- 
promise is, in the interests of the community, indispen- 
sable, and on the other, the relief which has been given 
to sensitive consciences by an alteration in the formula. 
But the tendency of any engagement whatever is to 
injure the scientific spirit, and so far to impede the 
attainment of success in research. Or to put it in 
another way, the object of an investigator is to discover 
truth ; that of a beneficed clergyman to foster the re- 
ligious life of his people. How can the same man be 
equally zealous for both objects ? In the present con- 



190 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

dition of theology, an invesd^ator must sometimes have 
to question received opinions, opinions which, as many 
half-educated persons will be sure to assume, are of the 
very essence of Christianity. How can an investigator 
be faithful to a cure of souls without hurting his criti- 
cal conscience ? And how can a beneficed clergyman 
be true to science without some dereliction of his 
spiritual duties ? I do not know whether it is altogether 
impossible, but, I am sure this would be a source of dis- 
quietude to most honourable men. Or (2) such an in- 
veterate lover of research may content himself with his 
200Z. or 250Z. a year, and seek for no better home than 
college-rooms can supply. But how then can he keep 
up that freshness of mind which historical research 
demands ? How deliver himself by travel from the 
almost inevitable narrowness which besets the isolated 
student ? How hope to visit that laud which, to the 
Biblical student, is indeed ' a fifth gospel ' ? How even 
publish the results of his researches, unless he is fortu- 
nate enough to acquire the patronage of the Daily 
Telegraph ? Or (3) he may dissipate his wits in 
periodical writing. Or, as a last resource, he may train 
young men for examinations, the tendency of which is 
certainly not to encourage the love of indejpendent 
research. 

It is not for the interest of the Church or the nation 
that this should be so ; not for the honour of either that 
we should continue to draw our historical theology so 
largely from German sources. Have Englishmen, then, 



MAINTENANCE OF THE STUDY OF THE BIBLE. 191 

become incapable of tliose studies whicb were opened 
in one direction b j a Pococke, in another by a Lowth ? 
There are livin<^ witnesses to the contrary, and there 
would be more, if the educational system of the univer- 
sities were more flexible. I know it is no light thing 
to be a Biblical investigator, and that untrained persons 
had better keep aloof from the subject. But is that a 
reason for sitting still ? Or for quenching the ' smoking 
flax ' of the love of research which still survives among 
us ? To show on the one hand that I do not underrate the 
difficulty of investigation, and on the other how neces- 
sary it is that some endowments should be granted for 
it, I will conclude this essay with a meagre yet not, I 
hope, inaccurate sketch of what it is to be an investi- 
gator of the Old Testament. 

An intimate acquaintance with the structure and 
genius of Hebrew is a preliminary requisite too often 
ignored in England. It is pathetic to see the self-con- 
fidence with which even eminent persons rush into print 
on a literature which they fundamentally misunderstand. 
But this alone is far from sufficient. The literature of 
Biblical Hebrew is so small in extent that both its gram- 
mar and its vocabulary require illustration from other 
sources. I do not wish to disparage an acquaintance 
with the idioms of the Talmuds and the Rabbis, but a 
far more necessary aid to the Hebrew student is a good 
grammatical knowledge of Arabic and Aramaic. Again 
it must be said that the narrow ideas of English theo- 
logians are almost incredible. With a Hebrew gram- 



]92 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

mar and lexicon, and perhaps a concordance, they think 
they have the key to all mysteries, forgetting that the 
Old Testament is in many parts as hard to interpret as 
a cuneiform inscription. This is not the whim of a 
Germanising party. Jewish scholars, whose preju- 
dices would naturally be against such an admission as 
this, and Assyriologues, who are naturally prone to 
magnify their own subject, might easily be quoted in 
support of these remarks. Too narrow a C(mception of 
Hebrew is one prevalent error among us : another is the 
supposition that the Old Testament can be treated fruit- 
fully from a merely linguistic point of view. IsTo 
amount of Hebrew will make a man an Old Testament 
scholar without a critical study of the contents of the 
literature. how timid and half-hearted are English 
Hebraists ! They forget that the Old Testament is a 
fragment of the literature of a small nation wedged in 
between peoples far superior to them in antiquity and 
civilisation. Egypt and Phoenicia, Syria and Assyria 
supply materials such as the boldest theorist never 
dreamed of for the study of the origines of Hebrew reli- 
gion. With these materials the Biblical investigator must 
acquaint himself as far as possible at first hand. It indi- 
cates a low tone among our theologians that commen- 
taries on the prophets can be published, in which the 
cuneiform researches are either ignorantly decried or 
almost as ignorantly misapplied. This may seem a stern 
demand. Nor is it within the capacity of more than 
two or three men in a century to master the whole 



MAINTENANCE OF THE STUDY OF THE BIBLE. 193 

apparatus of Biblical learning. But in Assyrian, at any 
rate, it is indispensable for tbe student to liave a first- 
hand acquaintance with some parts of the inscriptions. 
A first-hand knowledge of Egyptian may, so far as I 
can see, be dispensed with; the problems of Hebrew 
literature are less closely connected with the Nile than 
with the Euphrates. But a workable knowledge of 
Assyrian does seem to me necessary to anyone who 
would be a completely furnished student of the Old 
Testament. Experience has shown that to make a raid 
on an unfamiliar territory never answers. Dr. Dozy is 
an eminent Arabic scholar, yet the verdict of critics is 
unanimously against accepting his discovery of 'the 
Israelites at Mecca.' And there are already some signs 
that the crude imaginings of Dr. Dozy may be rivalled 
by as crude hypotheses of Biblical critics who have not 
read a word of cuneiform, and of Assyriologues who 
Jiave not had the special training of Biblical critics. 

But to return from Assyria to Palestine. There is 
much to be done even by imperfectly trained Biblical 
scholars. To learn Assyrian is . no doubt ' a counsel of 
perfection,' and an excess of modesty, or want of time 
and patience, may easily interfere with its accomplish- 
ment. But scholars who have learned Hebrew in a 
philological spirit, may perform a service to the nation 
by merely sifting the mass of continental critical 
theories. It is impossible for anyone cognisant of the 
facts to accept Mr. Matthew Arnold's estimate of its 
value. He tells us in his own fascinating way that 

o 



194 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

the Germans are too speculative, and apt to infer too 
ranch from slight indications ; but he forgets for the mo- 
ment that historical criticism is subject to the same law 
which holds good in other departments of knowledge^ 
and that the caprices of the individual are eliminated 
by the sure hand of time. If German criticism is too 
lax in its methods, all the more reason why the sober 
English mind should come to its assistance. I do not 
mean that English scholars should be content with 
reducing German theories to their true dimensions. 
Those who are bold enough to undergo the more com- 
plete discipline hinted at above may, if they will, be- 
come the worthy compeers of the great continental 
critics. Criticism will never say its last word, till each 
of the leading nations has contributed its independent 
efforts — perhaps indeed not even then, for, as Goethe 
says, ' every solution of a problem involves a new 
problem.' But still there is an useful function for less 
adventurous minds. It is waste of labour to begin the 
criticism of the Bible de novo. We must start from 
the point to which continental genius and industry have^ 
brought it. Granted there is much ' wood, hay, stubble ' 
in their work. Let any of the younger English scholars, 
devote themselves to removing this rubbish, and let 
the architects then begin to build. 

In the foregoing sentences the writer has insensibly 
passed from the study of the Old Testament taken by 
itself to that of the Bible as a whole. In fact, the New 
Testament at any rate cannot well be studied separately ► 



MAINTENANCE OF THE STUDY OF THE BIBLE, 195 

Its modes of thouglit are, in some of the most import- 
ant respects, but continuations or developments of those 
of pre-Christian Israel. And the processes required for 
its criticism are perhaps best learned in the critical 
study of the Old Testament, which is in one aspect a 
narrower field, and less closely connected with the 
religious controversies of the present day. May I be 
pardoned by English critics of the New Testament, for 
suggesting that in their treatment of both form and 
contents of that literature, they have suffered slightly 
for having (as it would seem) neglected this wholesome 
discipline ? 

Thus, then, there are two kinds of investigation, 
both of which, though in different degrees, call loudly 
for encouragement. The work has to be done, if there 
is to be a real continuity in the religious history of the 
nation, or more correctly if we are to have a religious 
history at all, and are not rather to drift on towards 
recrudescent superstition or a soulless and unscientific 
materialism. But the work will never be done ade- 
quately by practical clergymen, or by trainers of prac- 
tical clergymen, because of the relation in which they 
stand to traditional opinion. The only hope of historical 
theology, which is as much as to say, of historical 
religion, is to commit the investigation of it to inde- 
pendent workers ; and since this is a highly unremune"- 
rative pursuit, and an university is primarily the home 
of learning, to provide from the academical funds the 
material means for their work. I venture to ask for 

o 2 



196 OJV THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

tliis in the name at once of science and of religion, for 
it is the Bible in which I am mainly interested. The 
Bible stands at the centre of a group of studies, which 
cannot be ignored without injury to the completeness of 
our system. How much more might I add, could I 
trust myself to speak of its value as the link between 
churches and sects, nay, may I not add, between the 
Christian and other religions. 'And for how many 
other contradicting merits might not these Books, 
might not this one Book, be praised ! ' 



19: 



YIII. 

THE NEEDS OF ^E HISTOBICAL SCIENCES, 
/ 
By Akchibald Henbx Satcb, M.A., Felloto and Tutor of Queen'' s 
College, Oxford. 

' The proper study of mankind is man.' The epigram 
maj be deficient in poetical merit, but at any rate it 
enunciates a truth, which we are in some danger of 
forgetting at the present time. The marvellous pro- 
gress and discoveries of physical science, the intellectual 
revolution it has accomplished, as well as the practical 
and utilitarian bearing of its results, have made us 
somewhat blind to the fact that, however important 
may be the science of the material universe, its end 
and apex ought to be the science of man. If the 
material is subordinate to the mental and spiritual — if 
the thinker and enquirer himself be the ultimate centre 
of all his thoughts and enquiries, then surely we should 
not fall back again into the old Oriental attitude of 
mind which saw in man only the slave and puppet of 
an almighty and overpowering nature. As the litera- 
ture of Greece dissipated the darkness of medieeval 
superstition at the Eenaissance, so even now it may be 
well for us to drink in anew the lesson of Greek art, 



198 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

and learn that tlie divinity of the world about us is but 
the reflection of the soul of man. 

The universities have hitherto considered that the 
subject-matter of their studies and the basis of their 
teaching ought to be emphatically the literce humaniores 
— the best thoughts of the best thinkers that the past 
has bequeathed to us. The learning of the middle 
ages was stored up in the tattered fragments of Greek 
and Latin writers ; the light which broke in upon the 
Eenaissance came from the revived study of the classical 
languages and literature ; and it was therefore natural 
that the curriculum of the universities should be almost 
wholly founded on the literary remains of Greece and 
Rome. This traditional curriculum has indeed been 
expanded and modified in accordance with the needs of 
succeeding generations ; but it has remained the 
central core of academic life and activity — the rock 
upon which the intellectual work of our universities 
has been built. Now, however, a rival has started up 
in the shape of physical science, which, long content 
with bare toleration from the 'old learning,' already 
claims not only equality but even undisputed sway. 
The advance of physical science has been the great 
achievement of our age, and its supreme importance 
lies not so much in the material benefits it has con- 
ferred as in the scientific habit of mind produced by it, 
and the application of the inductive and comparative 
method to all the manifold subjects of human investi- 
gation. Tor the first time in the history of the 



THE NEEDS OF THE HISTORICAL SCIENCES. 199 

intellect, truth and not pleasure lias become tlie liigliest 
object to be aimed at. We want to know what really 
is and not what we wish to be, and to satisfy this want 
our processes of enquiry have to be exact and cautious, 
accepting nothing which cannot be proved and allow- 
ing nothing which cannot be verified. 

If the universities are to maintain the position they 
have inherited, and carry on the work for which they 
were established, they must adapt themselves to the 
changed requirements of modern knowledge, and har- 
monise together the old and the new learning. Phy- 
sical science is well able to take care of itself; its 
apostles are numerous and popular ; and its claims are 
not only likely to be pressed with vigour but to be 
listened to with respect. It is the historical sciences, 
those which deal with man and his history, which are 
most in danger of being neglected. What with the 
jealous exclusiveness of the old classical scholarship on 
the one side, and the large and growing needs of phy- 
sical science on the other, sciences like those of lan- 
guage, of ethnology, or we may even add of history, 
have a hard struggle to secure a recognition. And yet 
if a university be a place where the boundaries of 
knowledge are defined and extended, where ancient 
learning is studied and taught, and where a spirit of 
mental refinement — of humanity in short — is fostered 
and cultivated, there at any rate we ought to find 
abundant provision for those branches of study in which 
the culture of the past and the science of the present 



200 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

meet and combine. The application of tlie scientific 
method of induction and comparison to language, to 
history, and to literature, has given us the true key 
to that past without which we can neither understand 
the present nor provide for the future. The guesswork 
of a Perion, the solemn trifling of a Bryant, are mere 
anachronisms ; and it ought t.o be the office of a 
university to see that such anachronisms are rendered 
impossible. To break with the past would be more 
than an error ; to scatter to the winds all that the best 
and noblest minds of former generations have painfully 
constructed would bring with it its own punishment. 
What has to be done is to breathe into the heritage 
that has come down to us the new spirit of the scientific 
method, and so inspire it with fresh life. Physical 
science can be pursued elsewhere alone and in isolation. 
In a university such as Oxford or Cambridge, where the 
whole range of knowledge and research should be re- 
cognised and reviewed, it ought to take its place by the 
side of the historical sciences, lending to them its spirit 
and its method, and receiving in return their culture 
and 'humanity.' 

Speaking broadly, by the historical sciences we may 
understand all those departments of study, other than 
the mathematical and physical sciences, to which the 
scientific method is in any way applicable. Pirst and 
foremost will come the science of language, a historical 
science in so far as it lays down the laws in accordance 
with which thought expresses itself in speech and a. 



THE NEEDS OF THE HISTORICAL SCIENCES. 201 

physical science in so far as this has to be done by the- 
aid of physiological machinery. Next may be classed 
ethnology, the importance of which for the origin and 
history of religion and morality may be gathered from 
a work like Mr. Tylor's Primitive GtiUure; and then 
archaeology which, thanks to geology, has been raised, 
from a pastime of dilettanti to the rank of a true 
science. History itself may be placed next, as repre- 
sented by that new school of historians who hold that 
the facts with which they deal should be compared,, 
classified, and verified with the same rigour as the facts 
of chemistry or physiology ; and along with history 
will go comparative law, the principles of which have 
found so able an expositor in Sir Henry Maine. Last 
of all we may rank literature, the critical treatment of 
which rests upon canons similar in kind to the laws 
of science, and dating back to the comparative labours 
of the Eenaissance scholars u]3on the classical texts. 
Literature leads on to art ; and art, literature, and 
science both historical and physical, together form a 
whole which is the domain and subject matter of 
philosophy. 

The science of language is the most typical and 
representative of these historical sciences ; it is, too, the 
one most intimately connected with the traditional 
studies of the older universities, and as I feel myself 
best able to speak about it, the present essay will give 
it a prominence which might otherwise be thought 
undue. By the application of the historical method. 



202 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

classical philology has had to undergo the same trans- 
formation as the other subjects of university study, 
and inasmuch as it has long formed the staple of the 
traditional teaching, and is at the same time in the 
closest contact with linguistic science, it has naturally 
felt the influence of the scientific method more strongly 
than any other branch of learning. It is true that it 
has fallen from its former high estate; the classical lan- 
guages are no longer special phenomena, to be admired 
with reverence but not investigated too narrowly; 
they have become but members of a single family of 
speech, whose literary character makes them less in- 
teresting to the student of language than many of the 
jargons of savage tribes. In fact the study of the G-reek 
and Latin languages, as languages, has become but a 
subordinate part of comparative philology, which is 
itself but the instrument and servant of linguistic 
science. Except for etymological purposes Greek and 
Latin if regarded as mere languages, are of less value 
to the student than those modern dialects with whose 
pronunciation we are acquainted. The literature they 
enshrine, indeed, will never lose its old charm and 
supreme importance for culture ; but this charm and 
importance is shared more or less with other tongues 
like Hebrew, or English, or German, and the literature 
they embody, to be studied properly, ought to be 
studied in connexion with that of the other leading 
literary nations of the past and the present. Even in 
literature, we cannot dispense with the comparative 



THE NEEDS OF THE HISTORICAL SCIENCES. 203 

metlaod ; the Homeric Poems can never be under- 
stood until we read them by the side of the Hindu 
Mahabharata, the German Nibelungen Lied, the Ice- 
landic Edda, or the Finnic Kalevala ; and we owe to 
a Semitic people a body of literature at once nobler 
and more familiar than that of Greece or E,ome. 

So long as Oxford and Cambridge remain in any 
way educational establishments, Latin and Greek will 
form the groundwork of their classical instruction, but 
it must be Latin and Greek as illuminated and revivi- 
fied by comparative philology and antiquarian science. 
How far a purely literary treatment of these languages 
can be adapted to the necessities of teaching may be a 
doubtful matter; here and there a scholar may be 
found who will study Sophocles and Catullus as 
Gervinus studied Shakespeare and analyse the canons 
of taste with the nicety and care of a Herder or 
Lessing. But such cases will be necessarily rare, and 
for the bulk of the students Latin and Greek must be 
regarded wholly from the linguistic and grammatical 
point of view. Under such circumstances, proper 
provision for the requirements of comparative philology 
becomes of the utmost importance even in the interests 
of education itself. If physical science is a needful 
element in modern education, the historical sciences 
are equally so; indeed we may claim for them a 
superiority as educational instruments on the ground 
that the rough and ready experience of former genera- 
tions of teachers has created a framework and mould 



204 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

for them which the natural sciences are still in the- 
j)rocess of creating. There are few who would assert 
that physical science should be made the sole basis of 
education ; the majority even of those who have devoted 
their lives to the study of physical science, at least on 
the Continent, allow that what we have called th& 
historical sciences should form the frame and ground- 
work of all teaching. If, then, we are ready to provide 
the physical sciences with the costly apparatus they 
demand, with laboratories and museums and demon- 
strators, why should we grudge doing as much for the 
historical sciences ? why should the claims of chemistry 
be admitted, and those of the science of language be' 
dismissed with contempt ? 

But education is not the sole or even the chief 
function of a university. It is purely subordinate and 
derivative, the necessary adjunct and result of the main 
object for which universities were founded and endow- 
ments left. And this object is the collection, the 
combination, and the enlargement of all existing 
knowledge and learning, and the production and 
encouragement of scholars who shall give up their 
lives to study and research. The work thus performed 
constitutes the true essence of national civilisation. 
The civilisation of a period is gauged by its knowledge, 
and above all by the will and wish to organise and in- 
crease this knowledge. If a university is the outcome 
and representative of the intellectual efforts and in- 
terests of a nation, it is here that its intellectual labour 



THE NEEDS OF THE HISTORICAL SCIENCES. 305 

tind energy should be brouglit to a focus, and so dif- 
fused like rays of light through the whole community. 

Merely to collect and classify existing knowledge 
requires considerable outlay. Much more must this 
be the case when the work of extending knowledge is 
added, when we are not content with handing on to 
others what we have ourselves received, unchanged and 
unimproved, but in the spirit of discoverers and seekers 
after truth would increase the knowledge, and there- 
with the happiness, of mankind. The wants of the 
physical and biological sciences have been set forth in 
other essays, and their abundant and pressing nature 
made clear. Unless Ave would starve that intellectual 
spirit which still struggles against the materialistic 
worship of gold, unless we would be well satisfied that 
iihe first condition of civilisation, intellectual progress, 
should be neglected, it is absolutely necessary that the 
nation should awake to its duty of providing sufficient 
means for the furtherance and prosecution of scientific 
research. But the arguments which have been urged 
in favour of the physical sciences apply with all the 
greater force in favour of the historical sciences. The 
historical sciences, as we have seen, are but the nine- 
teenth century adaptation of the old university curri- 
culum of study, they form the groundwork and essence 
of the pursuits for which the universities were estab- 
lished and their endowments for the most part be- 
queathed, and they have therefore a claim upon the 
endowments and attention of the universities beyond 



L'Oe ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

all other branches of study. With the space here at 
my disposal it will be impossible to enter into details 
upon so wide a subject ; adequately to describe the re- 
quirements of each of the historical sciences, as well as 
the best means of meeting them, would need a series of 
special treatises. All I can do now is to make com- 
parative philology the representative of the rest, and 
endeavour to show how numerous and pressing are its 
wants if it is ever really to make its home among us, 
and then suggest some way of supplying them. From 
this single example some idea may be formed of what 
the other historical sciences demand from a modern 
civilised community, and the danger there is of their 
perishing from neglect if their claims are not attended 
to. We must not forget how intimately connected the 
science of language is with other sciences like ethno- 
logy and psychology, how little its study can be sepa- 
rated from that of history, and how important for its 
prosecution are both literature and art. In fact, the 
whole cycle of subjects which we have included under 
the name of the historical sciences form an organic 
whole, and to starve or neglect one would be to injure 
the rest. 

If researches in chemistry or physiology require 
complicated and costly apparatus, so too do researches 
in the science of language. In the first place, it is re- 
quisite to procure an accurate register of facts. And 
the facts of the science of language are the phonetic 
sounds uttered by the organs of speech, and the words- 



THE NEEDS OF THE HISTORICAL SCIENCES, 207 

spoten by the manifold tribes and nations scattered 
over tbe world. The collection of such facts requires a 
trained ear and mind, and the facts can only be col- 
lected by personal travel and intercourse with a vast 
variety of human beings. The training needed for 
accurately collecting them comes in great measure 
from experience, which must be acquired by visiting 
and living among the men whose language is to be ex- 
plored. The reports of untrained travellers are always 
more or less liable to error, and the too ready acceptance 
of them has led to numberless false conclusions, and 
formed the starting-point of unfounded theories. Thus 
an attempt has been made to settle the problem of the 
origin of language by an appeal to the apocryphal story 
of savage tribes who carried gesticulation so far as to 
be unable to converse in the dark, and the common 
definition of the polysynthetic languages of America is 
based upon an erroneous account of their manner of 
forming sentences. For getting at its fundamental 
facts the science of language, as much as any of the 
physical sciences, requires one of those missions scien-> 
tifiques which have conferred such honour upon France. 
But a 'mission scientifique like that of Oppert to Meso- 
potamia, of Mariette to Egypt, or of Halevy to Abys- 
sinia and Yemen, needs pecuniary support. 

Let us suppose, however, that the facts are being 
collected and gathered into the libraries and minds 
which are to receive them. If they are to fructify,, 
they must not be allowed to remain there. It is true 



208 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

we cannot for the most part deposit the facts of lan- 
guage in museums and laboratories ; they have to be 
stored up and arranged in the far more expensive re- 
ceptacles of the minds of scholars. A thing is valuable 
according to its rarity and difficulty of production, and 
the difficulty of making or finding scholars causes them 
to be much more precious commodities than buildings 
of brick and stone. The domain of speech is so wide 
that no single man can know thoroughly more than a 
dozen languages at most ; for the rest he has to rely 
upon others who have made them their special study. 
But there is no language, no dialect, no jargon even, 
which the student of language can afford to despise ; 
it often happens that some of the most valuable facts 
of his science are to be discovered in a remote and 
barbarous idiom. If his theories and conclusions are 
to be worth anything, he must know all the pheno- 
mena upon which they bear. Such knowledge, it is 
"true, may, to a certain extent, be gained from books, 
ihough even here the student must have some means 
of distinguishing the books whose statements he can 
trust from those whose statements he cannot. And 
since no book can be wholly infallible, even the books 
whose accuracy has been guaranteed to him may con- 
tain misstatements or misprints which with the per- 
Tersity of human nature he is very likely to pick out 
and build upon. There are few books, moreover, which 
.give everything the enquirer looks for, and still fewer 
of which it can be said that they do not need to be 



THE NEEDS OF THE HISTORICAL SCIENCES. 209 

supplemented by oral instruction and explanation. It 
is impossible to avoid misunderstandings and miscon- 
ceptions so long as we bave to rely upon books alone, 
and experience has shown what a fatal influence these 
misunderstandings and misconceptions have had upon 
the progress of linguistic science. Then, again, in 
these days of tense work, the student cannot afford the 
time to hunt through a multitude of books in order to 
discover at last the information he is seeking, especially 
as this hunt involves the necessity of learning some- 
thing at least of the languages he is running through. 
For in linguistic enquiries we can never be sure that 
our facts are rightly grasped and presented, that modi- 
fying phenomena have not been ignored or the results 
placed in a false light, unless we are thoroughly ac- 
quainted with the language or languages from which 
we derive them ; no amount of acquaintance with 
grammars and dictionaries will of itself preserve our 
reasoning and our theories from being based on a 
radical error. But the number of languages with which 
the philologist can hope to be even fairly acquainted 
must be very limited indeed. If his conclusions are to 
be sound, he must have specialists at hand who will be 
able to inform him of the facts which he desires to. 
know, without misunderstanding and without loss of' 
time. Now as ever, science cannot live by books alone ; 
if it is to advance and grow, it must be able to consult, 
the living voice, as physiology the living organism, and 
find an interpreter for its lexicons and grammars. The 

p 



210 ON THE jENUOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

importance of Chinese to tlie science of language need 
not be pointed out, nor fhe mass of literature described 
which, its study has called forth ; and yet those only 
who have devoted their attention to the science of lan- 
guage can have any idea of the loss occasioned to it at 
Oxford by the absence there of a Chair of Chinese. 
How much would not the Oxford students of language 
have given for an opportunity of questioning and lis- 
tening to a professor of Chinese, whom it has been left 
to the farsightedness of some Liverpool merchants to 
call to the university ? Apart from every other con- 
sideration, it is only from the living teacher that the 
phonology of a language, the basis of modern scientific 
investigation, can possibly be learned. Books are in- 
valuable in their way, but they cannot be safely utilised 
by science without being supplemented by the scholar 
and professor. All the books in the world would not 
have led Black to the discovery of latent heat, or Dar- 
win to the hypothesis of natural selection. 

But the production of really good books, of books, 
that is, which are of real assistance to science, is itself 
a costly matter. A work like Max Miiller's Lectures 
on the Science of Language or Curtius's Grundzuge 
der GriecMschen Etymologie cannot be produced with- 
out great material as well as intellectual expendi- 
ture. The facts themselves which have to be collected 
are often difficult to procure, and they invariably re- 
quire a considerable outlay in buyiug books, in visiting 
foreign libraries or teachers, and in acquiring that 



THE NEEDS OF THE HISTORICAL SCIENCES. 211 

training without wliich tlie latter would be of little 
good. Before they can be mastered and thrown into 
shape, they have to be thought over and matured in the 
mind — a process often tedious, always laborious, and 
demanding that uninterrupted leisure and freedom 
from anxiety which a sufficient competence can alone 
secure. Or let us take again a volume like Perrot's 
Exploration Archeologique de la Galatie et de la Bithynie, 
the value of which to historical knowledge depends 
partly on the accomplishment of travels in an almost 
unvisited pa,rt of the world, and partly on the exact 
reproduction of the sculptures and inscriptions found 
there. Such travels and such exact reproduction 
are alike expensive, and beyond the limits of ordinary 
purses. Indeed it sounds like a truism to say that 
many of the most important works which have helped 
on the progress of the historical sciences could never 
have been published without artificial maintenance. 
Scholars are not famous for their riches, and if they are 
willing to contribute their natural wealth of brains and 
labour, it is only fair that the community which is 
benefited thereby in prestige, in civilisation, and in 
that knowledge which is power, should on its side also 
afford them the means of doing so. And where the 
means have already been provided by the munificence 
of former generations, it is hard that they should be 
diverted to another purpose. 

It is not, however, only the living languages which 
the science of language has to investigate ; as a historical 

r 2 



'212 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

science it cannot go very far without the aid of extinct 
languages which have been preserved in MSS. and in- 
scriptions. But the discovery, the copying, and the colla- 
tion of a manuscript or an inscription is a laborious and 
expensive task. Correct copying of the original text is 
indispensable, and yet those only can be trusted to copy 
correctly who have made the work their special pur- 
suit and acquired experience therein. To gain such 
experience demands time and leisure and labour, all 
of which have a marketable value. Before, however, 
any texts can be copied they must be procured ; the 
monasteries of the East must be ransacked, the records 
of Brahmin and Buddhist temples must be explored^ 
and the mounds of Nineveh and Babylon must be made 
to deliver up their buried libraries of clay. Expeditions 
must be sent to Nitria, to India and Ceylon, to Kou- 
yunjik, to Egypt, in fact to all the parts of the earth, 
where men have thought and toiled and written, and 
elaborated a civilisation of which we should be the 
heirs. Can we think for a moment of the treasures 
which still lie under the soil of Greece, and then return, 
contentedly to disburse the funds at our disposal in 
paying examiners and exacting fees ? Why should it 
be left to the Prussian Government to exhume those 
glorious works of Greek art which once adorned Olym- 
pia and now serve at our universities to ornament an 
essay or a text-book, but not, as it would seem, to 
arouse the enthusiasm of the explorer and discoverer ? 
Or why, again, must it remain for a chance ' sensation * 



THE NEEDS OF THE HISTORICAL SCIENCES. 213 

in the metropolis and the enterprise of a daily news- 
paper to renew the search for those clay records of 
Assyria whose importance is so supreme not for com- 
parative philology only, hut still more for theology and 
the history of human progress ? When once it is fully 
Understood that the historic sciences, together with 
art and literature and philosophy, cannot advance 
■without the expenditure involved in collecting and 
examining ancient manuscripts and inscriptions, it is 
difficult to believe that the universities will not be asked 
to do what they can towards meeting it. A furious 
controversy has raged over the topography of Eome, a 
languid interest has been excited in the history of 
Greek art, and yet the university as a body has not given 
one farthing towards determining the one or satisfying 
the other, so far, at least, as excavation is concerned. 
Art cannot be studied where there are neither originals 
nor casts to set before the eye, and we may assert with 
equal truth that where manuscripts and inscriptions are 
wanting an intelligent study of philology and archseology 
is out of the question. To read the minute characters 
inscribed upon the cuneiform tablets of Nineveh requires 
practice, and how can this practice be obtained where 
no tablets are to be had ? To gather everything into a 
single spot like the British Museum is neither necessary 
nor advantageous ; it is possible for students and 
scholars to exist in Oxford and Cambridge as well as 
in London, and where there is no rigid centralisation 



214 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

the destructive work of a Paris Commune can never b& 
complete. 

Besides the need of scientific expeditions to collect 
vocabularies and grammars, manuscripts and inscrip- 
tions, coins and sculptures ; besides, too, the need of 
providing suitable accommodation for these when they 
are brought home as well as experienced scholars to 
examine and classify them, the science of language 
requires lastly a body of men who shall be to its prO" 
fessors what the demonstrators are to the professors 
of chemistry or physiology. The work achieved by the 
professor must be communicated in a practical form ta 
younger students by assistant sub-professors. To re- 
quire the professor to be continually going over the 
same elementary facts, the same round of experiments 
and illustrations, would distract him from his work of 
research and discovery, and deprive him of the leisure 
needed for systematic investigation. It is enough for 
the professor to communicate from time to time the re- 
sults of his own researches ; the elementary facts upon 
which these are ultimately based should be set before 
the beginner by the assistant or demonstrator. It is 
too often forgotten that scientific and literary work,. 
more than any other, must be carried on without inter- 
ruption or anxiety if any solid results are to be hoped, 
for. To break in upon the leisure of the scientific ex- 
plorer just when the facts are beginning to group them- 
selves in his mind into a theory is even more fatal thaa 
to disturb the inatrnmenta of the astronomer or the 



THE NEED8 OF THE HISTORICAL SCIENCES. 215 

sealed vessels of the chemist. Our powers of memory 
and concentration are limited, and the evolution of a 
successful theory requires a systematic co-ordination of 
the phenomena and a sustained and continuous effort of 
mind. Nowhere is this more imperatively necessary 
than in the work of decipherment. Before the meaning 
of a single unknown word can be determined, all the 
passages in which it occurs must be collected and 
examined, and fixed so distinctly in the mind as to pre- 
sent themselves clearly and at the same moment to our 
thought. The process is a long one, and the slightest 
interruption shatters the mental picture that is being 
formed and obliges the whole work to be done over 
again. Only, therefore, where the student has his 
working hours at his own disposal can great discoveries 
be made. Others before Schlegel and Bopp had re- 
marked the resemblances of Sanskrit to the languages 
of Europe, but the discovery of their genetic con- 
nexion which has laid the foundation of scientific 
philology could not be struck out until a man was found 
who had the leisure as well as the will to compare the 
whole of the phenomena together and so draw from 
them the inevitable conclusion. The decipherment of 
the cuneiform inscriptions goes back to Grotefend's 
patient and laborious determination of certain words in 
the Persian records of Darius and his successors ; the 
discovery might be called a stroke of genius, but it was 
more truly the result of minute and continuous labour. 
In his reply to a question raised by the Vieer 



216 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

Chancellor of the University of Oxford in 1874 as to 
whether the present number of professors is sufficient 
for the subject with which his Chair is connected, Prof. 
Max Miiller wrote thus : — 

' It is impossible at Oxford to teach more than what is re- 
quired in the examinations, and the amount of comparative 
philology there required can easily be supplied by the tutors 
of any college. As the examiners are almost always chosen 
from their number, the undergraduates naturally attend their 
lectures, in which they acquire exactly that amount of 
knowledge which is required in the examinations, and 
exactly in that form in which it is likely to be required. 

' If, on the contrary, it were wished to establish at Oxford 
a real school of comparative philology, the following pro- 
fessorships would be necessary : — 

'1. A professorship of the Teutonic languages. 

' 2. A professorship of the Celtic languages. 

' 3. A professorship of the IsTeo-Latin languages. 

' 4. A professorship of the Semitic languages, independent 
of the professorship of Hebrew and Old Testament 
Exegesis. 

' 5. A professorship of Persian, includitig Zend. 

' 6. A professorship of the language and antiquities of 
Egypt. 

' 7. A professorship of Chinese, coupled, if possible, with 
Tataric and Mongolic. 

* Such a staff, though it may seem large, exists in almost 
every university in Prance, Germany, and even Russia, the 
professor being expected not only to teach and prepare 
pupils for examination, but to inspire them with a love of 
special subjects, to carry on the work handed down by former 
generations, and to increase as much as possible the inherited 
capital of knowledge by means of original research. 



THE NEEDS OF THE HISTORICAL SCIENCES. 217 

' Considering tlie peculiar duties whicli England has under- 
taken to fulfil in India, a professorship of the Neo-Sanskritic 
languages (Bengali, Hindustani, Mahratti, &c.), and of the 
Dravidian languages (Tamil, Telugu, Canarese, &c.), would 
likewise seem to be required in the first university of the 
English Empire.' 

There is little to be added to these words- of the 
Professor of Comparative Philology. If the subject 
which he professes is to be anything more than a name 
the Chairs he suggests — and more, too, as science 
advances — ought to be established ; and it is difficult 
to see why the existence of the subject should have 
been recognised at all by the foundation of a Chair 
unless it were intended to make it something more than 
a name. 

And, indeed, if we are not to lag behind the rest of 
civilised Europe, if with our splendid endowments and 
ancient traditions we are not to stand still — and stand- 
ing still, be it remembered, means retrogression and 
decay, — then it is incumbent upon us to see that the 
interests both of comparative philology and its sister 
historical sciences are adequately provided for. The 
problems that yet remain to be solved are many and 
important, the results hitherto obtained require fresh 
sifting and modification. Every year brings with it 
new conquests and new questions ; the facts are ready 
to hand, but students to handle them are still wanting. 
The ground already won is small in comparison with 
that which still remains to be gained ; the harvest that 



218 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

awaits us is rich, with fruit of the highest importance,, 
not only to the culture and civilisation, but even to the 
religious and moral well-being of tlie human race^ 
The progress of comparative philology and the decipher- 
ment of the sacred records of India, of Persia, of Egypt, 
and of Babylonia, have opened out a new chapter in the 
history of Christianity and religion, and brought home 
to us a lesson of tolerance and brotherhood which 
cannot but influence our dealings with men of other 
creeds as well as the current of our own religious life. 
The revelations of the clay literature of Assyria and. 
the comparative study of mythology are enabling us to 
trace the genesis and growth of many of those beliefs 
and prepossessions which still flourish in our midst, 
while a book like Mr. Tyler's Primitive Culture castS' 
anew and unexpected light on the burning questions 
of philosophy and morals. The materials are accumu- 
lating for a settlement of the old problem of the origin 
of language, and each fresh hypothesis started to 
answer it is a fresh step in advance. Already we have 
come to know that the a priori guesses of past centuries 
were wide of the truth ; that the childhood of mankind 
was far different from that dreamed of by unbelieving^ 
philosophers or believing divines, and that the history 
of the prehistoric past which has been revealed to us in. 
the fossilised relics of language gives us a hope and a 
guidance for the future which has hitherto been out of 
our reach. The structure and growth of society have 
been explained, and a basis thus laid Avhereon possible 



THE NEEDS OF THE HISTORICAL SCIENCES. 219- 

schemes for its improvement may hereafter be built. 
Even in the more immediately practical matter of edu- 
cation, the scientific study of language is at last sug- 
gesting to us the natural and therefore the easiest 
method of dealing with the young. 

The time may yet come when we shall look with 
astonishment upon the waste of brains and labour in- 
volved in the old ' classical ' education which reversed 
the order of science and nature, by proceeding from 
the dead to the living tongues. And still more, a time 
may yet come when the cumbrous and insufficient 
system of symbols called English spelling, which dis- 
guises the true nature of language and makes teaching 
a task of pain and weariness and the conversational 
learning of a foreign tongue a matter of difficulty, shall 
have become a thing of the past. But before this can 
happen, old prejudices must be broken down, old habits 
of mind rooted out, and the questions which are now 
thronging in upon us satisfactorily answered. Is lan- 
guage a growth or an institution, has it sprung from 
one or from many centres, does it take us back to the 
ape of Darwin or to the Adam of Scripture ? These are 
the questions that have yet to be answered, and to 
answer them we must have students and institutes, 
thinkers and endowments. Is a universal language 
possible, and if so can it be created ? this, again, is 
another question to which a progressive science of lan- 
guage can alone give a reply. What is the bearing of 
the Assyrian inscriptions upon the inspiration of th& 



220 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

Bible or the religion of tlie Old Testament, what light 
do they throw on the early civilisation of mankind and 
"the early relations of the Semitic race ? Here, again, 
are other questions which must be decided by further 
exploration in the East, and the increase of scholars 
at home. But explorations cannot be organised and 
scholars cannot devote their lives to research without 
pecuniary help and maintenance. 

All that has been said above in regard to philology 
applies with equal force to the other historical sciences 
as well as to philosophy, to literature, or to art. The 
practical value of history need not be dwelt upon, but 
this value depends upon the accuracy with which its 
lessons are read. And such accuracy depends in its 
turn partly upon the number and nature of the monu- 
ments and documents and other historical materials 
that can be discovered and collected, partly upon the 
training of the several specialists employed upon them. 
It is the same also with art. Our standard of taste 
rises or falls with the models set before us, and where 
the models presented to those whose position makes 
them the leaders of the national taste are bad or in- 
ferior, that taste inevitably becomes vitiated. Not only 
must we have thoroughly trained art critics and pro- 
fessors, we must also have close at hand museums and 
galleries in which specimens of the choicest art of the 
past may be stored and arranged. Some time back the 
University of Oxford had the wisdom a.nd enterprise to 
purchase a portion of the Castellani Collection, but the 



THE NEEDS OF THE HISTORICAL SCIENCES. 22L 

collection still remains practically useless owing to want 
of room in which, to arrange and exhibit it. Further 
outlay for this purpose would not be ruinous to the 
funds of a university, which should remember that it 
owes its magnificent series of Turner's water-colours to 
the gift of a private individual. 

I have left myself but little room for discussing 
the ways and means of supplying the needs of the 
historical group of studies and their companion sub- 
jects. This, however, is no cause for regret, since a 
practical question of this kind must be resolved by 
quite other persons than an essayist. The nett income 
of the university and colleges of Oxford, we are told, 
amounts to 358,000L a year, and though this seems a 
large sum, it would be quite inadequate to meet all the 
requirements that could be reasonably demanded from 
the university — supposing, that is, that the university 
wished to keep ahead of all competitors in the field of 
knowledge and learning. Still, it is quite clear that 
the endowments of the universities could be better be- 
stowed than is at present the case, and it is quite clear 
also what general lines the redistribution might be ex- 
pected to take. First of all will come a numerous and 
well-endowed staff of professors, each regarded by com- 
petent experts as supreme in his own special subject, 
and accompanied by one or more assistant lecturers. 
Next we must have museums and galleries, filled with 
carefully selected specimens of art and science and fur- 
nished with all possible means for studying them. Then 



222 OX THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

will follow collections of inscriptions and manuscripts, 
for which, tlie Bodleian and the Ashmolean at Oxford 
will form good nuclei, and the public libraries that 
exist at present should be made even more efficient 
than they now are. Lastly, funds must be forth- 
coming for the despatch of scientific missions for 
excavating abroad, or for observing the manners of 
fast-perishing savages, as well as for the production 
of books of permanent value which shall embody 
the researches of eminent savans. It seems strange 
that the Prussian Academy should offer to defray 
some of the expenses connected with Dr. Bleek's re- 
searches in Bushman and Hottentot, while the two 
rich universities of England pass by on the other side 
like the priest and the Levite. It seems even stranger 
that it should be left to others to unearth the treasures 
of Olympia or explore the mounds of Assyria. !N^ot 
unfrequently has it been made a complaint and a 
reproach against the universities that the great epoch- 
making books of the present age, those which have 
extended the boundaries of knowledge or raised the 
fame of English scholars, have not proceeded from the 
universities or been published under their sanction. 
When we remember what the universities once were, 
the cradle of the Royal Society, the home of men like 
Pococke and Edmund Eich, we feel how far short they 
have fallen of their pristine glory and intention, how 
much they . have ceased to be universities in the 
true sense of the word — places, that is, in which the 



THE JVJEJEDS OF THE HISTORICAL SCIENCES. 223 

"wliole circle of existing knowledge is bronglit together 
and enlarged. Surely this onglit not to be so, nor 
need it be so^ if only the English people would awaken 
to a sense of the real meaning and object of a university 
and of their own position as ' heirs of all the ages in 
the foremost files of time.' The research and discoveries 
of the student are public gains — gains at once to the 
national civilisation and to the national prestige — and 
as such should be supported by public funds. Private 
munificence may do much, but it cannot supply that 
organisation, that freedom from caprice, and that feeling 
of responsibility which can alone come from public 
endowment. ISTor can private munificence, however 
splendid, be fairly asked to make up for the necessarily 
shortsighted niggardliness of the public expenditure. 
If a great work is to be done well, it must be done 
under the public eye and in the presence of an appre- 
ciative public sympathy. Science and learning do not 
ask for much compared let uy say with the demands 
of war, and the present endowments of the universities 
— endowments, we must bear in mind, mostly bequeathed 
for the benefit of learning — may yet be found to meet 
almost all the claims advanced by original research. 
To ask that the endowments should be given back to 
the purposes for which they were once intended is 
surely not asking much. That our universities should 
again be what they once were, the centres and repre- 
.sentatives of the intellectual life and activity of the 



224 ON THE ENDOWMENT ^OF RESEARCH. 

nation, tlie nursing-motliers of students and explorers, 
the seed-plots of the enthusiasm of learning, ought to 
find a response in the heart of every thinking English- 
man. Truth is the first object we ought to seek, and 
after truth the successful answers to those many ques- 
tions which are starting up on all sides, which have so 
vital a bearing on our civilisation and our humanit}'",, 
and which can only be answered by the careful investi- 
gation of the past. We need have no fear that the 
practical advantages which have made the physical 
sciences so popular in our utilitarian age will be 
absent from the fearless and independent pursuit of the 
historical sciences also. Each fresh discovery which 
has alleviated the sufferings of mankind or added to 
their happiness and comfort, has resulted from the 
disinterested questioning of nature and the untiring 
exercise of thought. Black's discovery of latent heat 
led to the invention of the steam-engine, and the course 
of history has been changed by the determination of a 
Greek letter. If man himself is the highest object of 
his study, the results to be expected to the moral and 
spiritual well-being of society from the progress of the 
historical sciences will be greater even than the con- 
struction of a locomotive or the exploration of the 
North Pole. Before, however, this can be the case, we 
must have an organised body of disinterested and active 
workers, provided with the leisure and freedom from 
distracting cares which constitute the prime conditions. 



THE NEEDS OF THE HISTORICAL SCIENCES. 226 

of the successful accoinplisliment of their work. If the 
universities are to be true to the traditions of the past, 
and to justify their existence for the future, they will 
have to see that such an organised body of students 
can be actually fostered and maintained. 



226 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 



IX. 

TEE NEEDS OF BIOLOGY. 

By W. T, Thiselton Dyee, B.A., late Junior Student of Christ 
Church, Oxford, ayid Assistant Director of Keio Gardens. 

The nature of the task wliicli tlie writer of this paper 
has undertaken, may in some degree be understood by 
anyone who will place before himself a map of the world, 
and proceed to take stock of our present, and of our 
possible future knowledge of geography. Some lands, 
he will consider to himself, probably ezist which are yet 
wholly unknown ; but even of those of which the coast 
configuration is pretty accurately ascertained there are 
innumerable inland regions altogether unexplored. And 
furthermore if he puts aside the somewhat arbitra^ry 
limitation of the province of the geographer to those 
portions of the earth's crust which happen not to be 
permanently covered with water, and asks himself how 
far the sculptured detail of the earth's crust is actually 
known as a whole, he must be driven to confess that 
the measure of man's ignorance in this matter is not 
small. Still further, if he consider what is known of 
the composition of even the more superficial layers of 



THE NEEDS OF BIOLOGY. 227 

tliat crust, he will again liave to admit tliat with the 
exception of one or two comparatively small areas the 
field for investigation is immense. 

Yet geography is by no means a thing of yesterday ; 
even the new world is beginning to seem a little old, sCnd 
the human race perhaps already feels a slight constraint 
as ' the uttermost parts of the earth ' impose a limit to 
its indefinite expansion. Still the mere knowledge of the 
earth's surface is not a thing that need take long to 
acquire if mankind determined that the task should be 
accomplished. The problem at the worst is a limited 
one ; its solution nevertheless has been a long time on 
hand and is a good way from final achievement. 

How well-nigh desperate then must seem the pros- 
pect to one who tries in the same manner to survey the 
whole field of science. For if the possibilities of know- 
ledge and discovery in different parts of its area be not 
actually in Unite, they are at any rate indefinitely ex- 
tended. No scientific Alexander can sigh for new 
worlds to conquer : he can only desire length of days to 
accomplish the invasion of territories which on every 
hand lie ripe for conquest. And if he turns his atten- 
tion to those fields of knowledge which have been 
fought for and won, and even sedulously explored, how 
much in every direction he will see that is still wrapped 
in obscurity, and how slender and rare are the tracks 
that have been carried into the unknown. 

My object, then, is to try and explain the nature of 
some of the investigations in physical science, the need 

Q 2 



228 02^ THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

of which seems most pressing. I shall confine myself 
to that side of it which deals with living as opposed 
to lifeless matter. And even with this limitation I shall 
have to restrict more than I care to do the inventory of 
things to be done. Indeed on all but my own branch I 
should hardly wish to speak at all, were it not desirable, 
to save needless repetition of facts of the same kind 
from different points of view, that some one person 
should undertake the functions of the scribe and treat 
at secondhand of subjects congruous with his own. 

There are clearly two aspects from which what I 
have to say may be regarded— the absolute and the 
utilitarian value of scientific discovery. From the first of 
these, knowledge has regard to nothing but herself, and 
there are many scientific men who will be displeased 
with me if I allow for a moment that there is any other 
adequate or recognisable aim in investigation but this. 
I must frankly confess that, while my own sympathies 
go entirely in this direction, I have felt the risk of ap- 
pearing to treat of scientific knowledge as only belong- 
ing to scientific men. And I had proposed to myself 
to adopt what might have seemed a rather sophistical 
course, and to urge as strongly as I could the utilitarian 
point of view, that of the pursuit of knowledge for its 
usefulness, while I kept the other somewhat in the 
background. 

But when I came to seriously consider the matter 
and especially in relation to the facts that were placed 
at my disposal by friends who had devoted themselves 



THE NEEDS OF BIOLOGY. 229 

to particular brandies of biological science, I found 
that it was altogether impossible to recognise the dis- 
tinction which I was at first afraid I should have to 
contend with, or to assign any facts which concern 
living things and which are not in some degree impor- 
tant to man, himself the highest and most complicated 
exponent of the phenomena of life. Let me attempt to 
illustrate this from some of the most elementary but 
yet most fundamental facts of Biology. 

Wherever we meet with a living organism we are led 
by the careful investigation of its structure to recognise 
as the material substratum of its life that peculiar kind 
of substance which is called protoplasm. This is the 
outward and visible sign of vital activity. The various 
and diverse appearance of living things arises partly 
from the fact that the particles of protopla,sm which 
are the essential elements of their fabric are clothed, as 
it were, with varied kinds of covering, each particle so 
clothed being what biologists call a cell. But as bricks 
may be built up into the most different kinds of build- 
ings, cells may be compacted into the most diverse 
organisms. Growth, then, consists in the division of such 
particles of protoplasm into new ones and the augmen- 
tation of these to the size of the original particles 
before division took place. The aggregate of proto- 
plasm is thus continuously increased ; clearly therefore 
new protoplasm has continuously to be manufactured. 

Now all we know is that protoplasm is able to perform 
this operation if it is supplied with the kind of matter 



230 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

whicli is called proteid — whicli is very complex in its 
composition and contains at any rate the four essential 
elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. 
These elements exist in various combinations in nature, 
but no animals are able to put them together so as to 
build up proteids. Man devours mutton, and the sheep 
eats grass, and the grass fabricates from carbonic acid 
(which contains carbon and oxygen) and from water 
(which contains hydrogen and oxygen) the homely sub- 
stance starch. This is the tortoise that supports the 
universe of life ; starch (or at least some part of its 
materials) in its turn is combined with the nitrogen 
suj)plied by salts of ammonia or compounds of nitric 
aciid taken up by the plant's roots, and thus proteids are 
made. They pass up the scale of creation till in man's 
body they are wasted in the toil of protoplasm and are 
returned to the inanimate world from whence they came 
as carbonic acid and ammonia. 

In any exact study of the whole subject of nutrition, 
who will really venture to say that the hand of the in- 
vestigator is to be stayed at any poini, of this series of 
phenomena ? and who will deny the importance of a 
right understanding of nutrition to the happiness of 
mankind whether we desire to merely alleviate the in- 
dividual misery of a dyspepsia or to solve the great 
economic problem of feeding nations. 

But scrutinise this sketch more closely, and notice 
how imperfect is our grasp of all the details. First as 
to starch ; one of the most interesting problems of the 



THE NEEDS OF BIOLOGY. 231 

day, and one which ought, and no doubt could be 
solved, is to ascertain the steps by which this sub- 
stance is formed by the leaves of plants. Yet if this is 
a mystery, a deeper one still is the modus operandi of 
the manufacture of proteids ; and indeed, of these sub- 
stances our knowledge in toto is of the vaguest. Then 
as to protoplasm itself: that word of power is familiar 
in the mouths of everyone, yet we have practically 
everything to learn of its chemical composition and the 
way in which it presides over the elaboration of various 
secondary products of high importance in the building 
up of the structures of living things, such as cellulose, 
chondrin, gelatin, and the like. 

But besides the sustentation of the bodies of animals, 
provision has also to be made for the supply of the 
force that makes them moving, acting, and living. 
Solar force which bound together the ingredients of 
the starch and proteids of the plant, and wrenched from 
them the oxygen with which their materials were origi- 
nally combined, is set free when the oxygen which we 
inhale recombines with those materials. And part of the 
force so derived gives us power to work while the rest 
is unavailable in that respect and goes to heat the body. 
Here, as before, there are the most considerable prob- 
lems to be solved. An elaborate series of investiga- 
tions are required to determine the ratio of the working 
force of the whole body and its parts to the amjount 
theoretically generated in it, and what proportion of 
this is dissipated as heat. The same kind of enquiry 



232 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

whicli is constantly kept in view with regard to the 
steam-engine needs to be exhaustively conducted with 
regard to the body. 

Or to turn to another point, we eat a piece of 
bread ; this is composed in the main of starch with 
some proteids. As we chew the bread it sweetens 
on the palate. This is because the saliva contains 
a peculiar substance called a ferment, which has 
the property of converting starch into sugar. The 
organ called the pancreas, later on, supplies a farther 
ferment which supplements the work of the saliva. 
And so starch, which is insoluble, is converted into 
sugar which is soluble, and this passes into the blood. 
According to one theory, the sugar, which is in point of 
fact as much a fuel to the body as coal to a fire, is tem- 
porarily stored up in the liver in the form of ' gly- 
cogen.' Thus it has been said, that the liver is the 
coal-bunker of the body* Now in this and other diges- 
tive processes, ' ferments ' play the all-important part. 
Yet the names we give to them are little more than 
symbols of our ignorance, and it is a pressing need that 
we should know what is the exact nature of the 
changes which ferments bring about. The substance 
alluded to above is P-gain a standing problem. If it is 
doubtful what is the exact origin of glycogen, it is a 
still greater mystery what is its exact use. 

If I insist on the question of nutrition, it is because 
it is clearly a matter of such paramount interest from 
every point of view. The utilitarian interests of the 



THE NEEDS OF BIOLOGY. 233 

communitj alad the curiosity of the men of science have 
in this respect an absolutely common object. What 
satisfies the one satisfies the other, and a comprehensive 
investigation of the whole subject involves the determi- 
nation of innumerable questions which have never yet 
been considered, though they stretch away in directions 
which the utilitarian enquirer has doubtless never 
dreamed of. Take the apparently purely practical ques- 
tion of feeding stock. The problem is, we may suppose 
for the sake of argument, to determine the most economi- 
cal supply of food, in order to produce the maximum 
amount of fat. At present it simply cannot be done. 
Such substances as contain starch, sugar, etc., which 
are grouped under the name of carbohydrates, would 
seem to be likely to supply the materials for fat, since 
they contain the same elements. Yet I am informed 
by a very distinguislied physiologist that it has never 
been ascertained whether fat is formed from carbohy- 
drates, or by the splitting of proteids so as to separate 
their nitrogen and form fat from the residue. Yet it is 
clear that this is, if only from the economic point of 
view, an absolutely fundamental point in the whole 
theory of feeding. There are in fact numerous prob- 
lems in nutrition and the whole use of food which can 
only be solved in large feeding establishments supplied 
with costly apparatus such as no educational body 
could be expected to support. It is necessary to com- 
bine, in the present state of the enquiry, the two 
methods which have been hitherto pursued. We must 



234 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

add to the procedure of our distinguished countrymen 
Lawes and Gilbert, which consisted in feeding animals 
on known food and determining by actual analysis 
their composition after death, the Germaji method of 
determining the excreta of the animal, and arguing 
back from this portion of the total amount which we 
put into the animal, what has become of the rest. 
There are manj- points which cannot be settled by one 
process alone. They have never been combined ; hence 
the want of progress in the investigation. 

As 1 have just stated, an enquiry into the use of 
food is a type of a class of investigations which need 
to be carried out on a large scale, and with a staff 
of investigators who would not be distracted by other 
pursuits from the laborious and persistent work which 
they would require to lead them to satisfactory results. 
Another enquiry of the same kind which may be in- 
stanced, is that of the action of drugs, meaning by the 
word all substances producing toxic or other definite 
effects upon the animal economy. This ought to be 
done on a large scale, and with a chief investigator 
directing a staff of subordinate workers who might 
be pupils initiating themselves in the discipline of re- 
search. As has been pointed out to me, some organi- 
. sation of this kind is essential, because though indivi- 
duals have done good work in this kind of investigation, 
they are apt to lose themselves in side issues. What is 
wanted is that these should be followed up as they 
arise without losing hold of the main enquiry. 



THE NEEDS OF BIOLOGY. 235 

There is some kind of precedent for the state en- 
gaging in researches of this kind. The Rivers Com- 
mission is in fact a case in point. So also are our as- 
tronomical and meteorological observations, and the 
Geological Survey. But all these have arisen in re- 
sponse to special needs. What is wanted is that the 
state, without a present utilitarian stimulus, should set 
apart some portion of its income for the systematic at- 
tack of problems the solution of which may reasonably 
be expected, but which are beyond the scope of teach- 
ing establishments. 

Researches of more manageable dimensions should 
however also be carried on in these, partly for the sake 
of their educational value, partly for the sake of the 
prestige which successful investigation confers on the 
place and men occupied with it, and which stimulates 
the enthusiasm of the pupils, and so raises the standard 
of the knowledge given and acquired. 

I shall content myself with merely enumerating a 
few physiological questions which are suitable for such 
laboratories as should exist at our universities. These 
have been suggested to me by the same authority to 
whom I have had recourse on points discussed in the 
preceding pages. 

The whole process of digestion which needs to be 
studied db initio. 

The action of the nervous system on secretion and 
nutrition. 

The function of the sympathetic nerves. 



236 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

The functions of the several parts of the cerebral 
and cerebro-spinal systems. 

A combined attack by numerous observers on the 
minute anatomy of the spinal cord in reference to 
function, * a sort of mapping out of the nervous con- 
stellations.' 

A complete revision of the whole current doctrines 
of nerve-cells and nerve-centres. 

An investigation of the chemical changes in living 
tissues in action — such as muscular contraction, and 
the part which oxygen plays in these changes. 

In considering the special fields of biological science 
presented by the animal and vegetable kingdoms it 
would be necessary to repeat much of what has been 
said already on general points. There are large fields 
of enquiry in which enormous progress might be made 
with extreme rapidity if adequate means could be found 
to support it, and this could only be done at the hands 
of the state. I shall not attempt to raise any general 
argument as to why this should be demanded or ex- 
pected. The general study of natural history has long 
been a matter of state concern, as evidenced by the 
collections of stuffed animals at the British Museum, 
and of flowering plants and ferns at Kew, and by the 
assistance given .from state funds to the Zoological 
Gardens and the HunteriR.n Museum of the College of 
Surgeons. Hitherto we have done, however, little more 
than make a survey of the material. The varions/orms 
of life have been diligently collected and labelled, and 



THE NEEDS OF BIOLOGY. 237 

a vast deal of most important information got together 
with, regard to their geographical distribution. But 
this line of study is becoming (though it has by no means 
become) worked out, and the more important but vastly 
more arduous detailed investigation of the individual 
forms themselves has to be seriously prosecuted. And 
this, to be effectively accomplished, requires access to 
the organisms in a living state. Here again the prin- 
ciple has received national sanction. H.M.S. ' Chal- 
lenger,' besides collecting material for study at home, 
was furnished with a laboratory and worlr-room to 
examine objects as they were brought on board, and 
some very admirable pieces of work have been thereby 
accomplished. At the present moment the needs of 
this kind of investigation comprise two distinct things. 
First, persons should be sent, not to collect but to 
reside and study in foreign countries — such as our 
colonies. In Australia the Ornithorhynchus, Echidna, 
and Ceratodus could be investigated ; in Fiji the Nau- 
tilus. Individuals might be sent out to shift for them- 
selves, a reasonable maintenance being insured to 
them by travelling fellowships on the model of the 
Eadcliffe foundation at Oxford. Or, what would be a 
better plan, ' stations ' might be maintained at a few 
suitable positions in foreign countries. The buildings of 
these might be of a simple and inexpensive kind, so 
that the stations might be shifted if necessary without 
any very great loss. Such arrangements would ne- 
cessitate a permanent director, to whose care students 



238 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

who have found science their vocation might he sent 
out from the universities or the training schools of the 
Science and Art Department at South Kensington. 

In the second place, stations for the study of marine 
organisms are verj much wanted on our own coasts. 
Amongst biologists there is at present a universal 
consensus of opinion on this head. One of my corre- 
spondents writes : — 

' There are innumerable prohlems as to the physiology of 
invertebrate animals. Take for example Dr. Michael Foster's 
investigation of the infliience of electricity on the heart of 
Molluscs and Mr. Romanes' observations on the locomotor 
system of Medusse^which can only be carried on at the sea- 
side, and therefore apart from teaching institutions. A 
great deal of light might fairly be expected from such re- 
searches if stations at the seaside were furnished with suitable 
apparatus for carrying them on.' 

Another writes in the same strain : — 

' A very pressing need is the study of the functions of some 
animals and plants besides our common domestic ones. We 
want to follow up by the comparative method the develop- 
ment of functions. This requires much time, and the means 
to enable observers to stay ou the coast for the purpose of 
studying marine invertebrata and fish (sharks are especially 
important). In fact the time has now come when the work 
of the comparative anatomist must be entirely gone over by 
the comparative physiologist ; and the latter, guided by 
evolution, may expect as rich a harvest as the former has 
reaped. 

' Thus, how did the function of blood-red come about (and 
the botanist might well ask the same question as to leaf- 



TRE NEEDS OF BIOLOGY. 239 

green ?) What are the digestive processes of the lower 
animals ; what kind of fluids take part in them ; what kind of 
bile for example, and how, when, and where is it formed ; how 
do the functions of nerves in the lower animals differ from 
those of the higher? The field is simply immense.' 

And if it is objected to my plea for aid to enable 
science to grapple with some oftbese unsolved questions 
and unknown facts, that interesting as they doubtless 
are, they are too limited in their scope to have any 
claims on the world at large, and that those who like 
to busy themselves with such matters must look for 
their reward in the interest they derive from them — I 
can only answer, as I have said before, that nature is 
one, and Lhat no man dare put his finger on any of its 
secrets and say this is a mere field for ingenious 
curiosity. The biologist must unravel in all their 
details nature's simple contrivances before he can 
successfully grapple with their stupendous complexity 
in the human frame. 

Turning away from physiology to morphological 
studies, there is an immense harvest ready in the careful 
study of embryology and development. I quote again 
from a correspondent, to avoid seeming to speak without 
authority : — ■ 

'Most of all, development needs study. The "recapitula- 
tive " stages which every animal embryo passes through give 
the facts from which we deduce its ancestral history — its pedi- 
gree. These facts are quite impossible to ascertain without 
the close personal devotion of the observer. This or that 
animal or plant has to be hunted up, its haunts determined, 



240 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

time of spawning, etc. The season may be lost in that alone. 
Then (in the ease of an animal) when you have got the eggs 
or spawn, they have to be sedulously tended to keep them alive, 
and day by day, even hour by hour, must be subjected to the 
closest scrutiny. Eggs perhaps the one-tTv^entieth of an inch 
in diameter have to be hardened, imbedded, and cut by a 
razor each into 60 slices, and then clarified and studied. A 
few eggs each day have to be so treated for three weeks or a 
month. Then the sections must be drawn, and the history 
put together as a whole. Clearly it must be a very slow pro- 
cess to accumulate results.' 

Here again, it may be urged, all this is a marvellous 
case of self-denying devotion to an abstract pursuit, but 
where does it touch the interest of the community ? 
Nature I again reply is one. The general problem of 
development is to find out how and in what relation to 
each other the different parts of the organism make their 
appearance. The study of normal growth, for example, 
has been found to throw unexpected light on abnormal 
growths such as cancer and tumours. Do the cells of 
such a structure belong to the skin or to deeper layers ? 
And embryological science helps to an answer. 

Then all that relates to pisciculture goes hand in 
hand with the study of development; practical ex- 
pedients that are favourable to the one are the key to 
success in the other. 

But the whole subject forms the basis for investi- 
gating the question of Heredity, which is of immense 
practical importance. By the minute study of embry- 



THE NEEDS OF BIOLOGY. ^241 

olog-y we be^in to see some glimmering's of liglit, with 
tlie hope held out to us of seeing darkly ere long, and 
clearly in the distant future. The question of social 
subordination to biological laws is already settled in 
matters of sanitation. What is the fact that the death- 
rate of London has fallen from 80 per 1,000 in the 
latter half of the seventeenth to 24 per 1,000 in the 
latter half of the nineteenth century but a practical 
expression of that subordination ? And though it is 
a delicate matter to touch upon, may not hereditary 
disease come to be considered as preventible as, for 
instance, typhoid fever, and as much, therefore, within 
the province of the statesman ? 

It is not to be supposed that the enthusiasm of the 
community will be as great for all branches of science as 
that of its special votaries. But with this kind of plant 
you cannot isolate and cultivate a single branch. The 
whole tree must be sedulously encouraged if fruit is to 
be borne by it in due season. Every biological investi- 
gation resolves itself in its ultimate analysis into the 
study of some attitude of protoplasm — a thing of which 
it is impossible, having regard to our common interest, 
ever to know too much. 

I have hardly left myself space to deal with matters 
on which I may claim to speak with a more special 
authority. But with regard to the plant world the 
argument is still the same. Microscopists studied 
vibrios and bacteria before they were known to be 

E, 



242 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

franglifc with the awful interest that attaches to the 
congeneric organisms which play such a fatal part in 
the contagious diseases by which mankind is ravaged. 
The researches of Dr. Klein on smallpox open up an 
entirely new path to their investigation. Innumerable 
kinds of fungi destroy different kinds of cultivated 
plants. Our likelihood of effectively grappling with 
these enemies directly depends on our knowledge of 
their course of life. The fungus which produces the 
potato-disease is still imperfectly known, and the Royal 
Agricultural Society, with a laudable desire to remedy 
that deficiency, in the absence of any laboratory in this 
country where such investigations are prosecuted, was 
compelled to have recourse to that of the University of 
Strassburg, and placed lOOZ. at the disposal of Professor 
De Bary, in order to have the subject completely inves- 
tigated . 

Our knowledge of the life-history of the lower plants 
is in every direction most incomplete. What has been 
said on this head already with regard to animals, 
might, totidem verbis, be repeated here. The laws 
which govern variation might be investigated most 
favourably amongst plants, since they are so amenable 
to the artificial restraints of cultivation, and run through 
the course of their lives with such rapidity as to afford 
within a comparatively short space of time a large 
number of generations. Then, again, the whole subject 
of vegetable nutrition, and indeed every branch of 



THE NEEDS OF BIOLOGY. 243 

vegetable physiology, though in a promising, must he 
regarded as only in a nascent state. 

Everywhere the harvest of new knowledge is matur- 
ing and, ripening. England alone is loath to send 
labourers to reap it. 



B 2 



2U ON THE ENDOWMENT OF BESEARCH. 



X. 



ON THE PRESENT RELATIONS BETWEEN CLAS- 
SICAL RESEARCH AND CLASSICAL EDUCATION 
/ IN ENGLAND. 

By Henex Nettleship, M.A., Felloiv and Tutor of Corpus Christi 
College, Oxford ; Iccte Assistant Master at Harrow School, 

No acquisition of modern times is more remarkable 
than tlie nearer realisation of tlie unity of spirit wliicli 
pervades all research.. Among a multitude of labourers 
in various fields of knowledge, there is a consciousness 
of a common aim, a common method, a common inspira- 
tion. This consciousness is no mere abstraction, but a 
living reality ; the active pursuit of truth is a bond as 
strong as the bond of charity. And, while the widely- 
spreading love of truth is forming a new element of 
union among men, the objects of knowledge themselves 
are discovering more and more of their inner harmonies 
as their laws are read and verified by fresh experience. 
No branch of knowledge can now be seriously studied 
in isolation, or without a view to its actual or possible 
connexion with other branches, and the ultimate dis- 
covery of the simple principles underlying them all. 



CLASSICAL RESEARCH AND EDUCATION. 245 

This fact is obvious in the sphere of the humanities as 
"well as in that of the natural sciences. Histories are 
studied for the sake of knowing history, languages for 
the sake of knowing language ; and the studies of lan- 
guage and history are seen to be inseparably connected. 
Unities only guessed at or wrongly imagined before are 
disclosing themselves in their true aspect under the 
light of the comparative method. In this view it can- 
not be said of any ascertained set of facts that it is un- 
fruitful or unworthy of further examination, or of any 
philosophical system, that it is final. 

It is of the essence of a liberal education that it 
should stand in constant relation to the advance of 
knowledge. Eesearch and discovery are the processes by 
which truth is directly acquired ; education is the pre- 
paration of the mind for its reception, and the creation 
of a truth-loving habit. The two lines of activity, 
though one is subordinate to the other, are in their 
nature inseparable. In practice, however, a clear line 
of distinction, familiar in common parlance and opinion, 
is rightly drawn between the functions of education and 
of research. The ends of education are practical and 
immediate, those of research speculative and remote. 
Education is mainly concerned with the imparting of 
elementary and essential knowledge, scientific investi- 
gation with the discovery of new truths, the import- 
ance or unimportance of which is not immediately pre- 
sent to the investigator. It is a teacher's first duty to 
consider the mind of his pupil, and whether his com- 
munication is suited to its condition ; it is the firs 



24G ON THE ENDOWMENT OF. RESEARCH. 

duty of a person engaged in researcli to consider what 
new materials, what new combination of old materials, 
what new hypothesis, are available for the progress of 
knowledge under his hand. This difference of pure 
and applied truth exists in all branches of education 
and knowledge, mathematical, classical, or scientific. 

Men engaged in the cultivation of the natural 
sciences are fully aware that, although the spheres of 
education and of discovery are distinct, the two pur- 
suits have a living and perpetual relation to each other 
which can never be lost sight of without detriment to 
both. The progress of science is so rapid, and the in- 
terest excited by it so absorbing, that the work of edu- 
cation is being continually modified by it. It is im- 
possible for a teacher of one of the natural sciences to 
hold aloof from the progress of discovery. But in the 
case of classical study it is hardly too much to say that, 
in England, the connexion between education and re- 
search has been, as far as popular feeling and opinion 
is concerned, almost wholly lost sight of. A great 
deal of the best educational ability of this country is 
absorbed in the teaching of classics ; but the number 
of persons in England who are engaged in, or seriously 
interested in, classical learning is out of all proportion 
small, and the importance of that learning is hardly 
acknowledged, or at least not acknowledged at all as 
clearly as the duty of scientific research is by scientific 
men. There is an unmistakeable tendency among 
Englishmen, whether engaged in education or not, to 
regard classical research as an unproductive pursuit, a 



CLASSICAL RESEARCH AND EDUCATION. 247 

pleasure of the few ratlier than a labour serviceable to 
the many. ' Many,' says Professor Mayor, ' who live by 
teaching the classics, affect to despise them.' ^ 

Without entering into the perplexing questions 
connected with the present distribution of endowments, 
or asking whether any other possible distribution 
would have the effect of reviving a love for the higher 
scholarship, I propose to notice some of the causes 
and some of the results of the present indifference to 
learning, and to suggest means by which some advance 
might be made towai'ds restoring the proper relation 
between classical research and classical education. 

Among the causes of the phenomenon under con- 
sideration, one of the most obvious and important is 
the idea that the field of classics is practically worked 
out. The masterpieces of classical literature have long 
been familiar to the cultivated classes among us, and 
have formed the staple of our liberal education. 
Enough, it may be thought, is known of these immor- 
tal monuments and of their practical value to us. 
With the general outline of ancient life we are so fami- 
liar that we may fairly dispense with the trouble of 
adding new and minute touches to a picture already 
sufficiently restored. The age of discoveries in classi- 
cal literature is past ; the spirit of discovery has gone 
elsewhere, to animate new labourers in new regions of 
unexplored wealth. 

Though the facts of the case are far otherwise, 

' Preface to his Bibliographical Clue to Boman Literature. 



248 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF EESEARCH. 

thougk (to say nothing- of the new position in wliicli 
comparative philology has placed the Greek and Latin 
languages) there is an amount of work, practically in- 
finite, yet to be done before we can know all that is to 
be known of the ancient world, and though every suc- 
ceeding generation brings its own lights to the reading 
of antiquity, reasoning like this is plausible enough to 
weigh strongly with many able and practical minds. 
But there are other reasons which co-operate with it to 
prejudice against the cause of classical learning not 
only many whose life lies outside the educational pro- 
fession, but many also of the classicists themselves, 
both at our schools and at our universities. 

The vocation of a scholar is often wrongly con- 
ceived. The classical authors are rightly studied, in 
great part, as models of style, but in England we have 
been too tenacious of this point of view. Boys are set 
to imitate in their own verses the poetry of Sophocles 
and Euripides, of Virgil, Ovid, and Horace, and in their 
prose the eloquence of Demosthenes and Cicero. A 
feAV succeed, to a certain extent, in the difficult task, 
win the name of scholars, and keep it mainly on the 
strength of their skill in Greek and Latin writing. 
The element of taste is undoubtedly an essential ele- 
ment in scholarship, but far too great a prominence has 
been given to it in common English opinion. It is for- 
gotten that for the making of a scholar more manly 
qualities are required ; grasp of mind, power of dealing 
with materials, historical insight ; and scholarship and 



CLASSICAL RESEARCH AND EDUCATION. 249 

scholars suffer by the forgetting. The rhetorical side 
of classical education may be justly insisted on with 
boys, but it has unfortunately become our habit to 
apply the same method to men, and to continue too ex- 
clusively at the universities a training only suited to 
schools. One result has been that the words ' scholar- 
ship ' and ' scholar ' often convey, in popular language, 
little or no idea of research, but imply chiefly the power 
of manipulating the Greek and Latin languages, or 
translating them into English. 

I have touched so far only upon habits of thought 
and language ; but there are also important conditions 
in the life of English schools and nniversities which 
tend to foster our forge tfulness of the importance of 
classical study. 

The English nation has adopted the habit of send- 
ing boys, when possible, from home to be taught and 
trained at the large boarding schools which, it may be 
roughly said, have now the monopoly of our higher edu- 
cation. The system is expensive and exclusive, and it 
might at first sight be supposed that it would favour 
the cultivation of learning and of studious habits 
among the masters of our great schools, who are able, 
as a rule, if fairly successful in their profession, to live 
in easy circumstances, and to enjoy some three months' 
holiday every year. But the case is in reality different. 
The duties of a ' house-master ' at an English school 
are in themselves so absorbing and exacting as to leave 
him little, if any, leisure for reading. He has to pro- 



250 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

vide for some thirty or thirty-five boys, to care for tlieir 
instruction, to attend to their discipline^ to sympathise 
with their varions needs. He has but few hours in the 
week to himself, and cannot even call his evenings his 
own. The old system of laissez-faire which was tole- 
rated by public opinion a generation ago is now gene- 
rally, and it may be hoped for ever, abandoned, and the 
master of a ' house ' at one of our large schools must 
attend to the moral, physical, and mental welfare of 
his boys, at the expense of failing in his profession. It 
is hardly surprising that, after their monotonous and 
absorbing duties, schoolmasters should often when the 
holidays come round, leave their books for a ' complete 
change,' and hurry to games or mountain air for recrea- 
tion. 

Again, the mere fact that the boys attending the 
great English schools live together for most of the 
year with little or no society but their own creates 
among them a well-defined boyish tradition, code of 
morals, and general habit of mind, which is strong in 
proportion to the position which the school occupies in 
the eye of the public, and to the length of time during 
which it has maintained that position. This boyish 
public opinion is sometimes of great strength, and not 
without its influence upon the masters, who in many 
cases have been public school boys themselves, and are 
therefore in sympathy with it. There is now a far 
better understanding than formerly between boys and 
masters, far more effort on the part of the masters to 



r CLASSICAL RESEARCH AND EDUCATION. 251 

enter into the feelings and even into the pursuits of 
boys, far more endeavour to make learning attractive 
to them and to varj the subjects of study with their 
varying aptitudes. The modern English master is not 
an easy-going isolated pedant, but a member of an 
active community, whose aims, habit of mind, and tone 
of thought he makes his own. The familiar moral and 
social type of character developed by the English public 
schools is, in many respects, a high and manly type, 
but it is on the whole unfavourable to the cultivation 
of learning, and to sympathy with it. The work done is 
regarded less as an end in itself than as a means of 
strengthening the minds, and above all the characters, 
of the boys. This is as it should be, regarding the 
matter from the boys' side 5 but a broader view is re- 
quired for the masters, otherwise their work becomes 
so much task-work, a medley of isolated and second- 
hand results having no living interest or connexion 
with the great body of knowledge. 

Such, then, are the conditions of life in our great 
schools as to make the thorough pursuit of learning, 
in any branch of knowledge, extremely difficult; in 
general, indeed, impossible. But in the universities, 
it may be supposed, with larger opportunities and 
abundance of leisure, the pursuit of learning is actively 
carried on. It can hardly be said that the routine 
work either of professors or college tutors is onerous or 
absorbing, when they enjoy more than six months' 
vacation every year. There is plenty of time for re- 



252 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

search at tlie universities, which are its natural homes. 
The very idea of a university is that of a place where 
all the great branches of knowledge are taught and 
cultivated, and where students and teachers are united, 
if not by a common system of thought embracing all 
their studies, at least by a common method and com- 
mon ends. 

With all their advantages, however, it cannot be 
said that the English universities implant in their 
students either a love of research or a knowledge of its 
methods. Men leave them with their minds liberalised 
and expanded, and with a sense of having gone 
through a course of mental gymnastic which has 
trained and tested their powers, and braced them for 
active life. But it may be doubted whether an average 
first-class man at Oxford or Cambridge has, as a rule, 
any clear conception of the principles and procedure of 
classical research. He has read and mastered the con- 
tents of a considerable number of classical books, and 
(at least at Oxford) has acquired a tincture of modern 
philosophical culture, and a ready power of expressing 
himself on paper. But his knowledge has been gained 
almost entirely in the form of results, and with the 
directly practical aim of succeeding in the examinations 
and assuring him a good start in life. He has been 
taught in the main by young men, who hand on the 
tradition in which they have been reared themselves, 
and whose method is more popular, because more prac- 
tically useful, than that of older and more experienced 



CLASSICAL RESEARCH AND EDUCATION. 253 

teaeliers. In short, the attitude of the students and 
the teachers at the universities towards the subjects of 
study has a tendency to become professional rather 
than scientific. Knowledge is worked up and dealt out 
for the purposes of the market, not pursued and com- 
manicated as a life-giving means of culture. 

It is easier to dwell upon a fact now so generally 
acknowledged as this than to point out its causes or 
suggest remedies for it. It is not uncommon to lay the 
whole blame on the examination system, and no doubt 
this has much to answer for. At Oxford (of which 
alone I am able to speak at first-hand), a definite 
course of reading is prescribed to the classical student, 
which occupies him from the beginning to the end of 
his career, leaving him no time for following his own 
inclination in the choice of a branch of study. ^ It 
follows that no lectures which travel out of the ordinary 
beat are likely to obtain many listeners. The noble 
idea of Lehrfreiheit and Studienfreiheit, familiar to the 
Germans, is unknown to us, and, as a consequence, 
little also is known of the continuous quickening con- 
tact between the minds of the teacher and the taught 
which is the result of the efi'ective love of knowledge 
pursued by the one and communicated to the other. 
Ihe conditions of the examination system at Oxford 

' It is true tliat recent legislation at Oxford allows the reading of 
certain voluntary or ' extra' subjects. But the mass of compulsory work 
is so great that this freedom is, so far as philclogy goes, in practice illu- 
sory, and that the higher scholarship is not taught in the ordinary 
courses of lectures. 



254 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

not only make it almost an impossibility for tlie pro- 
fessors (tke natural representatives of learning) to ob- 
tain large classes, but go far to prevent the college 
tutors from giving thorough courses of lectures. The 
whole tendency of the system is towards summarising 
and shortening, towards the communication of results, 
not the training in method. It cannot be ^aid that 
classical philology is at all represented as it should be in 
the O^iordi curriculum. For the first public examination, 
in which men are examined in the language of parts of 
certain classical books, is a boyish proceeding, in which 
the rudiments of the higher scholarship have but little 
part; while the university scholarships are for the 
most part awarded, and necessarily awarded, for saga- 
city and rhetorical skill rather than for width and 
depth of knowledge or mastery of materials. It cannot 
be otherwise, when no time is left for the acquirement 
of knowledge. 

At Cambridge a far greater freedom in the choice 
of classical study is, in terms at least, allowed than at 
Oxford. The theory is that a man is examined in 
Greek and Latin without limitation to particular books. 
Such a system, while it necessitates wide reading, must 
also leave considerable time for special study. And it 
is, I think, the case that Cambridge men have, as a 
rule, a more thorough knowledge of the Greek and 
Latin languages than Oxford men, and a clear^r idea of 
the methods of classical research. If less accomplished 
rhetoricians, they have received a more solid grounding 



CLASSICAL RESEARCH AND EDUCATION. 255 

in the elements of scholar ship. But at Cambridge also 
I believe (I cannot speak from actual knowledge), that 
the rigidlj competitive character of the examination 
has of late had a tendency to throw the teaching more 
and more into the hands of private tutors, and to give 
it a more practical and professional complexion ; while 
the importance attached to Greek and Latin composi- 
tion compels the bulk of the men who read for 
honours, to spend much time on writing which might 
be more profitably given to reading. 

There is no doubt that a well organised system of 
examinations is, in its essence, the enemy of research. 
The more its organisation is improved, the more must 
the examination tend to narrow the field of knowledge 
both for teacher and taught, the more must it exact of 
the memory and the knack of rapid composition, the 
more time must it demand, the less must it encourage 
creative and original power. Yet I cannot agree with 
those who are inclined to lay upon the examination 
system alone the dearth of learning in our universities. 
The classical examinations might go on much as they 
now do, and much time would still be left to the 
college tutors for original work, which, though it might 
not have any direct bearing on their lectures, would 
naturally be interesting in itself, and would indirectly 
strengthen their teaching efforts. It is not so much 
the examinations which are at fault as our ready ac- 
quiescence in the necessary evils which attend them. 
We make ourselves their willing slaves, and then blame 



256 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEAItCH. 

them for their despotism over us. There is no inherent 
necessity for this. Examinations are probably, as 
things now are, an essential part of the machinery of 
education, and they have, no doubt, though in a some- 
what mechanical way, helped materially to diffuse the 
elements of knowledge, and to diminish habits of idle- 
ness and dissipation among the students. It does not 
follow that they should be allowed to narrow the aims 
of the teaching body. The comparative barrenness of 
our universities in original work appears to be rather 
attributable to that general want of speculative interest 
which is characteristic of Englishmen. Our mode of 
dealing with examinations is probably no more than a 
symptom of a deeply seated and long inherited ten- 
dency. 

If this be so, why, it may be asked, indulge in fruit- 
less complaints ? If the English universities, with all 
their opportunities, have ceased to be the living centres 
of learning and research, if recent reforms have only 
ended in producing an increased amount of activity 
and industry in the appropriation of knowledge for 
practical purposes, why endeavour to stem the tide of 
which we can do no more than mark the advance ? Our 
national character, it may be thought, has insensibly 
set its stamp upon our national education ; we have 
got what we want, not the best thing, it may be, but 
the best thing for us; we do not produce, and do not 
wish to produce, scholars, but educated men, furnished 
with so much of liberal culture as will enable them to 



CLASSICAL RESEARCH AND EDUCATION. 257 

win and to maintain their position in life and in societj'-, 
or to succeed better in any practical pursuit in Avhich 
they may engage ; this, whether expressed or not, is 
our deliberate aim. We like acting better than think- 
ing or writing, or making discoveries ; practical ac- 
tivity, success in all our pursuits, professional or dis- 
interested, selfish or philanthropic — hae tihi erunt artes. 

This ought we to do, and not to leave the other un- 
done. Mere energy and activity, divorced from the 
thought of principles and wider aims, must in the long 
run waste itself. Our so-called practical habit of mind 
is the cause of a great defect in our conception both of 
education and of learning. It may be worth while to 
notice some of the evils which result from this defect, 
for one at least of the conditions of health is a recocjni- 
tion of the disadvantages of an unhealthy state. 

One marked result of the neglect of classical learn- 
ing in England is the isolation of learned men both 
among themselves and from the body of the educa- 
tional profession. Learning and research are furthered, 
more than by anything else, by combination; but of 
combination for classical research we have in England 
little or nothing. There is undoubtedly in this country, 
within and without the universities, a respectable body 
of learned men, but the want of concert between them, 
and the indifference with which their labours are re- 
garded by the general public, are a serious discourage- 
ment both to those who have chosen the career of 
learning and to those who are aspiring to enter upon 



258 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

it. Learned men are isolated, again, from the educa- 
tional profession as a body. The conditions of life in 
our leading schools, as I endeavoured to describe them 
above, tend to concentrate the attention of masters 
more and more upon questions of morals and discipline, 
and the qualifications for a classical teacher in a good 
school, though they naturally include ' scholarship,' or 
in other words, the attainment of a high classical de- 
gree at a university, do not include the intention to 
pursue any branch of study. And this is true, as a 
rule, of head masters, as well as of assistant masters. 
Head masters are now so occupied with the duties of 
administration, that it would be impossible for them to 
imitate Arnold's combination of knowledge with prac- 
tical power. No one would now dream of expecting a 
* History of Eiome ' from the head master of an English 
public school. The cause of learning has thus, to a 
great extent, lost the sympathies and interest of the 
very men whose co-operation, owing to their position 
and influence throughout the country, would be most 
serviceable to it. Again, the defect under consideration 
leaves marked traces in the general character of our 
learned literature. No systematic instruction is given 
at Oxford or, I believe, at Cambridge, in the methods 
of classical research; there is little concert between 
university professors and students (before or after tak- 
ing their degree) for the object of common labour and 
co-operation in the solution of outlying philological 
problems. If a man wishes to make himself a thorough 



CLASSICAL RESEARCH AND EDUCATION. 259 

scholar, lie must go to G-ermany and learn method 
there, and improve by his efforts on what he has learned. 
Meanwhile, there is no lack of new classical books in 
England. Some of these have a quasi-literary charac- 
ter, and are written animi causa, as a sign of the 
author's interest in the subject ; many are educational 
and intended, directly or indirectly, for school purposes, 
or for service in examinations. Too much of the 
scholarship displayed in both classes of books is of an 
amateur cast. It must be so, for a scholar is not trained 
to know clearly what he intends to do when he sits 
down to edit a Greek or Latin book. He has been 
left entirely in the dark as to the principles of diplo- 
matic criticism, and has never even been made inti- 
mately familiar with the proceeding of any great 
scholar in his greatest works. 

The dearth of really original work is as remarkable 
as the number of our school books. The staple of the 
classical education given at Oxford, for instance, has 
long been the study of Aristotle and Plato and of 
Greek and Roman history ; yet no considerable work 
has appeared at Oxford in recent times on the philo- 
sophy of Aristotle as a whole, or upon Herodotus or 
Thucydides, or Livy, or Tacitus. 

The unhappy divorce of learning from teaching is 
also the cause of much of the confusion of aim and idea 
with regard to classical knowledge and education which 
is manifest both in the minds of educationists and of 
the general public. So long as the classical literature 

s 2 



260 ON Tim ENDOWMENT OF EESEARCE. 

was generally tliouglit to contain the best things that 
could be known, there was no difficulty in maintaining 
it as the staple of a liberal education. It cannot be 
said, however, at the present time, that the Greek and 
Latin books have now the paramount claim which they 
once had to dominate our schools and universities. 
This is a fact which students of natural science and of 
modern languages have naturally, in the discussion of 
the rival claims of the ancient and modern learning, 
been ready enough to seize upon, and, so far as the 
parallel claims of their own studies are concerned, they 
may be considered to have had the best of the argu- 
ment. But the defenders of classical education have 
put themselves at a disadvantage by not thoroughly 
recognising and insisting upon the fact that, while the 
classical literatures retain their intrinsic, though not 
their paramount, value, they have won a new place for 
consideration as an important part of the growing 
organism of knowledge. Classical teachers have re- 
garded their subject too exclusively as a means of 
training, or of information, or of enjoyment, forgetting 
that like any other branch of knowledge it requires 
fresh and constant cultivation, that the field of classi- 
cal research is in no sense worked out, that even for 
the greatest and best known works of the ancients 
much remains to be done in the way of criticism and 
interpretation, while the field of the late Greek and 
Latin has much fresh store to yield ; that fresh dis- 
coveries of coins and inscriptions and works of art are 



CLASSICAL RESEARCH AND EDUCATION. 2G1 

almost daily throwing new light on obscure points of 
ancient life and history ; that the comparative study of 
languages has given to every detail of Greek and Latin 
grammar a possible interest and importance that it 
never had before ; that the comparative study of syntax 
is only in its infancy ; that the comparative study of 
institutions is making ever fresh demands upon the 
students of Greek and Eoman law and antiquities. 
When it is fully recognised that classical study is an 
essential part of the growing body of knowledge, and 
of paramount innportance as the key to a great chap- 
ter of human history Qiumani nihil alienum), it will 
matter little on what other grounds it may be com- 
mended or disparaged. Classical students will have a 
clear aim and a hope of fruit, and the spirit of languor 
and compromise will disappear.^ 

^ In his Inaugural Lecture on the Academical Study of Latin (pub- 
lished in the first volume of his Miscellaneous Writings) Conington has the 
following observations, which I venture to quote as suggested by consider- 
ations parallel to those upon which I have been dwelling : — 

'There are, I know, persons to whom the enumeration of the obstacles 
to the understanding of the classics suggests regretful, if not contemptuous, 
feelings. They lament the waste of labour spent, not in the discovery of 
the unknown but in the recovery of the lost, and make light of divinations 
of truth which the unrolling of a single new manuscript may supersede or 
disprove. The complaint is the same which is put so epigrammatically by 
the author of Hudibras where he says of Time and his daughter Truth : 

'Twas he that put her in the pit 
Before he pulled her out of it. 

I need hardly say that, if valid at all, it is valid, as Butler doubtless in- 
tended it, against all historical research. There, as here, we have the 
spectacle of human thought toiling painfully to repair the losses caused by 
human thoughtlessness as well as by the unavoidable chances of time ■ 



262 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

It is time to ask whether there are any practical 
ways of meeting the evils complained of. It is difficult 
enough to suggest any means of counteracting an in- 
veterate tendency which can only be fully met by the 
arising of a new spirit. There are, however, methods 
of bringing classical education and research into closer 
relation, which might, without any violent or sweeping 



there, as here, the utmost that can be done may disappear before the con- 
tradiction or the fuller affirmation of an accidental discovery. But is the 
case so diiferent as regards other parts of knowledge ? Is not the attain- 
ment of all intellectual truth a labour which might have conceivably been 
spared to us, nay, which doubtless would have been spared had the mere 
possession and enjoyment of truth been the end which we were meant to 
compass ? Even the very word enjoyment, so used, implies a misconception. 
The intellect enjoys truth, not by simply contemplating it but by feeding 
on it, by assimilating it, and thus making it instrumental to the perception 
of further truth, which in its turn ministers to other and higher realisations. 
The toil of getting and the joy of using are not, as in other things, separate, 
but identical ; if distinguishable in common speech it is only as we may 
choose to distinguish parts of a process which is really uniform and indivi- 
sible. . . . Whoever may complain of the difficulties which beset the pur- 
suit of classical scholarship, assuredly it will not be the scholar himself. 
He knows it is precisely by means of these difficulties that he is made perfect 
in his work. ... It is nothing to him that his time has often to be spent 
on minute and seemingly trivial points, for he feels that the smaller is to 
be estimated by the standard of the greater, and that in accepting his call- 
ing he has accepted a duty, more or less defined, to everything that apper- 
tains to it. The task of recovering a lost word or allusion is not resented 
as a gratuitous hardship but embraced as a welcome boon, which compels 
the student, as it were, to enter the author's laboratory, not as a spectator 
l)ut as a fellow-worker, and rewards the restoration with something of the 
same delight which must have attended the original invention. It is his 
labour that he has to go down among those who have long been dead ; but 
there is conscious pleasiire in every step of the way, and it is his glory that 
he can break their sleep and revive them, that he can make them drink the 
blood of life and speak living words, that he can endow them, if not with 
the gift of prophecy, at least with the human power of memory.' 



CLASSICAL RESEARCH AND EDUCATION. 263 

changes, be adopted with, some success both at schools 
and universities. 

Something more might perhaps be done, even at 
our large boarding schools, than is done at present. 
Our system of classical teaching might be, to a certain 
extent, adapted to a broader point of view. There is 
no reason why the fact that the classical languages 
and literature are monuments of a great period of 
history should ever be forgotten by teachers of classics, 
and there are ways of leading boys up to this aspect. 
Boys are now kept at school till within two years of 
manhood, and the older and abler among them are 
capable of some appreciation of principles. The read- 
ing in the higher classes might be so arranged as to 
involve, as far as possible, the study of contempora- 
neous authors. Thus Sophocles might be read side by 
side with Herodotus, Thucydides with Euripides and 
Aristophanes, Cicero and Caesar with Catullus and 
Lucretius, Yirgil and Horace with Livy, Tacitus and the 
younger Pliny and Seneca with Juvenal. Boys would 
thus be accustomed to regard their authors not only as 
models of style and storehouses of grammatical con- 
struction, but as representatives of their time. And, 
as the texts of most of the Greek and Latin authors, 
whether of the best periods or otherwise, are now ac- 
cessible in a cheap form in the Teubner series, boys 
might be encouraged to form select libraries of these 
authors and guided to a method of reading them, as far 
as possible, in chronological order. Much has been 



i264 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

done and much more might still be done in the way of 
illustrating ancient life by casts and photographs. In 
these and in other ways the foundation of an historical 
point of view and of a living interest in antiquity might 
be laid in a boy's mind, and this in itself would be an 
incentive, if not to study, at least to sympathy with it. 
It cannot, however, be expected that, while the 
boarding-house system is in virtual possession of the 
field of the higher education, original study will, to any 
great extent, be pursued by schoolmasters. It may be 
that the present state of things will for a long time re- 
main unsuperseded, and even unchallenged ; but there 
are solid reasons for hoping that a system of day 
schools may in time grow up strong enough to rival the 
great boarding schools in the estimation of the public. 
There are considerations bearing on this question which 
can hardly fail, in the long run, to force themselves 
upon the attention of the country. The existence of 
good day schools in our large towns, whether for classi-' 
cal or for modern education, would be an incalculable 
benefit to the English people. It would materially 
cheapen the higher education and render it accessible 
to a far greater number than at present. Thousands 
would be brought under humanising influences who are 
now out of their reach. The stiffness, unkindliness, and 
pedantry of our present social distinctions would to a 
great extent disappear, for there is no leveller like cul- 
ture. It would no longer be considered the natural and 
obvious thing that parents should send their sons from 



CLASSICAL RESEARCH AND EDUCATION. 265 

home and liome influences to become, from their early 
boyhood, the citizens of a new society. I mention 
these patent facts in passing only to show that an ar- 
rangement which would be favourable to study among 
schoolmasters would be also, in respects far more im- 
portant, a national benefit. That the day-school 
system would be comparatively favourable to study, as 
it has proved to be in Germany, need hardly be pointed 
out. It would relieve the masters of the load of anxious 
and responsible work 'which is inseparable from the care 
of a house. 

School work can of course be only preparatory, 
but a more thorough initiation into the interpretation 
of ancient life and the methods of classical study may 
be expected at the universities. I suppose that the 
Cambridge system, if worked with reasonable flexi- 
bility, would allow of all the freedom that is desirable. 
But at Oxford the claims of the examinations, for 
which a definite set of books is prescribed, are so 
exacting as practically to leave no room for lectures in 
the higher scholarship. I am not complaining of the 
main principle on which the Oxford final examination 
is based ; there is no hardship, there are even great ad- 
vantages, in compelling a classical student to read Plato 
and Aristotle, Herodotus and Thucydides. A prescrip- 
tion of this kind acts as a check upon vagaries, and 
secures to the student a thorough knowledge of impor- 
tant books. But the demands of the examination should 
not be, as they are at present, so rigid as to leave no 



266 ON THE ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

time for the formation of voluntary classes in whicH in- 
struction might be given in the rudiments of criticism. 
Such classes would in all probability never be large, 
nor would they attract the ablest among the students. 
But they would provide, it may fairly be said, for the 
wants of a reasonable number of men with a taste for 
criticism and a capacity for contributing something 
original towards it, who now are left almost entirely 
without guidance. In these voluntary classes tutors 
might give a general introduction to the principles of 
philological evidence, whether derived from manuscripts 
or inscriptions, using manuscripts, where such are avail- 
able, for illustration (even inferior manuscripts would be 
very serviceable in this way where good ones are not 
accessible) ; or the student might be taken carefully 
through some great work of criticism such as Bentley's 
* Horace ' or ' Manilius,' or Madvig's ' De Finibus,' the 
tutor calling special attention to the method of the 
critic, its strong and its weak points ; or some impor- 
tant period in the history of scholarship (a subject 
almost entirely ignored by Oxford men) might be 
studied. 

No such distinction should be drawn between the 
form and the matter of classical writings as is now 
drawn at Oxford, where the students are taken first 
through a preliminary course of poetry and oratory, 
and are afterwards introduced to the historians and phi- 
losophers, reading, for instance, for the first public ex- 
amination Demosthenes and Cicero and Homer and 



CLASSICAL RESEARCH AND EDUCATION. 267 

Virg-il, and for the second Thucydides and Livy and 
Aristotle and Plato. This arrangement not only makes 
the first year of the student's Oxford life a mere con- 
tinuation of his school work, but prevents him from 
taking any view of classical literature as a whole. 

The comparative study of languages should be 
begun at the universities not (as now at Oxford) by the 
reading of compendia or notes from lectures, but by 
learning the rudiments of Sanskrit. 

Students of philology, after they have completed 
their university course, should be invited by the pro- 
fessors to co-operate with them in original work, or to 
undertake original work of their own. Or they should 
at least be directed how to set about such work, if it be 
their wish to undertake it. 

Suggestions of this kind (and there are doubtless 
many others which will occur to minds more fertile 
than my own) might be acted upon without materially 
modifying the principles on which the course of studies 
at our universities is based. They require for their ap- 
plication no more than an increased elasticity in the 
examination system, with which, in its main features, 
I should not propose to interfere. I suppose that the 
demands of the examinations are nowhere more rigorous 
than at Oxford ; but even there, if the mass of compul- 
sory work were diminished, and a real freedom given 
to learn and to teach subjects falling outside the pre- 
scribed course, there would be little difficulty in com- 
municating, to those interested in the matter, the 



2G8 ON mi: ENDOWMENT OF RESEARCH. 

elements of philological method, and removing from 
the Oxford system what no one interested in classical 
antiquity can but regard as a glaring defect. I am 
pleading for a kind of instruction with which I suppose 
all serious teachers and students of the natural sciences 
to be familiar, and which is indeed inseparable from the 
progressive pursuit of any branch of knowledge what- 
ever. 

Classical study can maintain itself as a living ele- 
ment of knowledge, but not as a patchwork of accom- 
plishments. The revival of learning in England 
requires the aid not of genius, but of ordinary ability 
and good will. Singleness of aim among even a few 
like-minded persons can accomplish much, and it is to 
be hoped that the importance of research to education, 
its eiScacy in strengthening the individual character of 
the student, and the general indirect influence of learn- 
ing in preventing the degeneration of literature, will 
soon be recognised not by a few but hj many. In re- 
sources of all kinds, endowments, leisure, opportunities, 
our universities are exceptionally rich. Much has been 
done to remove the old restrictipns which prevented free 
access to these resources ; the duty remains of employ- 
ing them fruitfully, and adding a new element of well- 
being to the national life of England. 



APPENDICES. 



Extract from Prof. Max Milller^s * Cliips from a German 
WorJcshop,' vol. iv. pp. 4-10. 

Oxford and Cambridge, as independent corporations, withdrawn alike 
from the support and from the control of the State, have always looked 
upon the instruction of the youth of England as their proper work ; 
and nowhere has the tradition of classical learning been handed down 
more faithfully from one generation to another than in England; nowhere 
has its generous spirit more thoroughly pervEfded the minds of states- 
men, poets, artists, and moulded the character of that large and 
important class of independent and cultivated men, without which 
this country would cease to he what it has been for the last two 
centuries, a respublica, a commonwealth, in the best sense of the word. 
Oxford and Cambridge have supplied what England expected or de- 
manded, and as English parents did not send their sons to learn Chinese 
or to study Cornish, there was naturally no supply where there was 
no demand. The professorial element in the university, the true 
representative of higher learning and independent research, withered 
away ; the tutorial assumed the vastest proportions dui'ing this and 
the last centuries. But looking back to the earlier history of the 
English universities, I believe it is a mistake to suppose that Oxford, 
one of the most celebrated universities daring the Middle Ages and in 
the modern history of Europe, could ever have ignored the duty, so 
fully recognised by other European universities, of not only handing 



270 APPENDICES. 

down intact, and laid up, as it were, in a napkin, the traditional stock 
of human knowledge, but of constantly adding to it, and increasing it 
fivefold and tenfold. Nay, unless I am much mistaken, there was 
really no university in which more ample provision had heen made by 
founders and benefactors than at Oxford, for the support and encou- 
1 ageinent of a class of students who should follow up new lines of 
study, devote their energies to work which, from its very nature, could 
not be lucrative or even self-supporting, and maintain the fame of 
English learning, English industry, and English genius in that great 
and time-honoured republic of learning which claims the allegiance 
of the whole of Europe, nay, of the whole civilised world. That work 
at Oxford and Cambridge was meant to be done by the fellows of 
colleges. In times, no doubt, when every kind of learning was in the 
hands of the clergy, these fellowships might seem to have been 
intended exclusively for the support of theological students. But 
when other studies, once mere germs and shoots on the tree of know- 
ledge, separated from the old stem and assumed an independent growth, 
whether under the name of natural science, or history, or scholarship, 
or jurisprudence, a fair division ought to have been made at once of 
the funds which, in accordance with the letter, it may be, but cer- 
tainly not with the spirit of the ancient statutes, have remained for so 
many years appropriated to the exclusive support of theological learn- 
ing, if learning it could be called. Fortunately that mistake has now 
been remedied, and the funds originally intended without distinction 
for the support of ' true religion and useful learning,' are now again 
more equally apportioned among thos3 who, in the age in which we 
live, have divided and subdivided the vast intellectual inheritance of 
the Middle Ages, in order to cultivate the more thoroughly every nook 
and every corner in the boundless field of human knowledge. 

Something, however, remains stUl to be done in order to restore 
these fellowships more fully and more efficiently to their original pur- 
pose, and thus to secure to the university not only a staff" of zealous 
teachers, which it certainly possesses, but likewise a class of indepen- 
dent workers, of men who by original research, by critical editions of 
the classics, by an acquisition of a scholarlike knowledge of other lan- 
guages besides Greek and Latin, by an honest devotion to one or the 
other among the numerous branches of physical science, by fearless 
researches into the ancient historj' of mankind, by a careful collection 



APPENDICES. 271 

or revision of tlie materials for the history of politics, jurisprudence, 
medicine, literature, and arts, by a life-long occupation with the, 
problems of philosophy, and last, not least, by a real study of theology, 
or the science of religion, should perform again those duties which, in 
the stillness of the Middle Ages, were performed by learned friars 
within the walls of our colleges. Those duties have remained in 
abeyance for several generations, and they must now be performed 
with increased vigour, in order to retain for Oxford that high position 
which it once held, not simply as a place of education, but as a seat of 
learning, amid the most celebrated universities of Europe. 

'Noblesse oblige ' is an old saying that is sometimes addressed to those 
who. have inherited an illustrious name, and who are proud of their 
ancestors. But what are the ancestors of the oldest and proudest of 
families compared vrith the ancestors of this university ? ' Noblesse 
oblige ' applies to Oxford at the present moment more than ever, when 
knowledge for its own sake, and a chivalrous devotion to studies which 
command no price in the fair of the world, and lead to no places of 
emolument in Church or State, are looked down upon and ridiculed 
by almost everybody. 

There is no career in England at the present moment for scholars 
and students. No father could honestly advise his son, whatever 
talent he might display, to devote himself exclusively to classical, his- 
torical, or physical studies. The few men who still keep up the fair 
name of England by independent research and new discoveries in the 
fields of political and natural history, do not always come from our 
universities ; and unless they possess independent means, they cannot 
devote more than the leism-e hours, left by their official duties in 
Ohm-ch or State, to the prosecution of their favourite studies. This 
ought not to be, nor need it be so. If only twenty men in Oxford and 
Cambridge had the wiU, everything is ready for a reform, that is, for 
a restoration of the ancient glory of Oxford. The funds which are 
now frittered away in so-called prize-fellowships, would enable the 
universities to-morrow to invite the best talent of England back to its 
legitimate home. And what should we lose if we had no longer that 
long retinue of non-resident fellows ? It is true, no doubt, that a 
fellowship has been a help in the earlier career of many a poor and 
hardworking man, and how could it be otherwise ? But in many 
cases I know that it has proved a drag rather than a spiir for further 



272 APPENDICES. 

efforts. Students at English universities belong, as a rule, to the 
wealthier classes, and England is the wealthiest country in Europe. 
Yet in no country in the world would a young man, after his education 
is finished, expect assistance from public soiu-ces. Other coimtries 
tax themselves to the utmost in order to enable the largest possible 
number of young men to enjoy the best possible education in schools 
and universities. But when that is done the community feels that it 
has fulfilled its duty, and it says to the young generation, Now swim 
or drown A manly sti"ug-gle against poverty, it may be even against 
actual hunger, will form a stronger and sounder metal than a lotus- . 
eating club-life in London or Paris. Whatever fellowships were in- 
tended to be, they were never intended to be mere sinecures, as most 
of them are at present. It is a national blessing that the two ancient 
imiversities of England should have saved such large funds from the 
shipwreck that swallowed up the corporate funds of the Continental 
universities. But in order to secure their safety for the future, it is 
absolutely necessary that these funds should be utilised again for the 
advancement of learning. Why should not a fellowship be made into 
a career for life, beginning with little, but rising like the incomes of 
other ^professions. Why should the grotesque condition of celibacy 
be imposed on a fellowship, instead of the really salutary condition of — 
No work, no pay ? Why should not some special literary or scientific 
work be assigned to each fellow, whether resident in Oxford or sent 
abroad on scientific missions ? Why, instead of having fifty yoimg 
men scattered about in England, should we not have ten of the best 
workers in every branch of human Imowledge resident at Oxford, 
whether as teachers or as guides, or as examples ? The very pre- 
sence of such men would have a stimulating and elevating effect : it 
would show to the young men higher objects of himian ambition than 
the baton of a field-marshal, the mitre of a bishop, the ermine of a 
judge, or the money-bags of a merchant ; it would create for the future 
a supply of new workers as soon as there was for them, if not an avenue 
to wealth and power, at least a fair opening for hard work and proper 
pay. All this might be done to-morrow without any injiu'y to any- 
body, and with every chance of producing results of the greatest value 
to the universities, to the" country, and to the world at large. Let the 
university continue to do the excellent work which it does at present 
as a teacher, but let it not forget the equally important duty of a 



APPENDICES. 273 

university, tliat of a worker. Our century has inherited the intel- 
lectual wealth of former centuries, and with it the duty, not 
only to preserve it or to dole it out in schools and universities, 
hut to increase it far heyond the limits which it has reached at pre- 
sent. Where there is no advance there is retrogression ; rest is 
impossible for the human mind. 

Much of the work, therefore, which in other universities falls to 
the lot of the professors, ought in Oxford to be performed by a staff 
of student-fellows, whose labours should be properly organised as they 
are in the Institute of France or in the Academy of Berlin. With 
or without teaching, they could perform the work which no imiversity 
can safely neglect, the work of constantly testing the soundness of 
our intellectual food, and of steadily expanding the realms of know- 
ledge. We want pioneers, explorers, conquerors, and we could have 
them in abundance if we cared to have them. What other universities 
do by founding new chairs for new sciences, the colleges of Oxford 
could do to-morrow by applying the funds which are not required for 
teaching purposes, and which are now spent on sinecure fellowships, 
for making either temporary or permanent provision for the endow- 
ment of original research. 

It is true that new chairs have from time to time been founded in 
Oxford also ; but if we enquire into the circumstances under which 
provision was made for the teaching of new subjects, we shall find that 
it generally took place, not so much for the encouragement of any new 
branch of scientific research, however interesting to the philosopher 
and the historian, as in order to satisfy some practical wants that 
could no longer be ignored, whether in Church or State, or in the 
university itself. 



274 APPENDICES. 



n. 

The folloioing opinion was expressed hy the late Prof. Con- 
ington, and printed in the Bine Book of the Commission of 
1852 (^Evidence, pp. 117-119), hut excited no attention at 
the time, as the question of endowing_ original research as 
such had nut yet been brought before the nation. 

But there is another class to which I have more than once alluded, a 
class whose work is literary rather than educational, and for these, I 
conceive, a very different preparation is needed. Oral and personal 
teaching is not their end, and private tuition will do them but little 
good as a means, though in the present state of the University they 
may not be disposed to forego the increase of income which it holds 
out to them. Persons who regard learning and education from a dis- 
tance may easily be led into imagining them to be one and the same 
thing, so as to see no reason why a learned man should not be a pro- 
fessor or a schoolmaster ; but there can be no occasion to press the 
distinction on those who take a nearer view. It would be unwise to 
expect a student to be a professor, though the impersonal character of 
a general lecture approaches more nearly to that of a written book : 
it is infinitely more impolitic to make him give up those years when 
the passion for acquiring knowledge is strongest, and literary 
ambition most ardent, to the labour of communicating such informa- 
tion as may best enable the pupil to satisfy College or University 
examiners. The result is that both literature and education suffer 
indefinitely by being thus compelled to encroach on each other's 
sphere. This I believe to be the real cause which makes the system 
of private tuition appear to be a hardship on the tutor. As a system 
it may be capable of improvement with reference to its own legiti- 
mate object, but the chief alteration needed is one which would 
remove the necessity of its being conducted by men who might be 
more profitably employed in other pursuits. 

The distinction which I have just been reasserting between learn- 
ing and education ought, in strictness of speech, to prevent me from 
offeriug any observations on this point, as it is not of the professorial 



APPENDICES. 275 

system that I am intending to speak, I should greatly rejoice in any 
reform which would give efficiency to that system, and am strongly of 
opinion that the funds at the disposal of the Colleges might with 
advantage be made available for such a purpose ; but I have not 
sufficiently considered the question in its details to be able to do more 
than echo the opinions of others. On the other and more direct 
means of encouraging learning, the maintenance of a body of men, 
not as teachers but as students, I may be naturally expected to say 
something more, as I have already made it evident that they occupy 
a prominent place in my consideration ; and though the little atten- 
tion which the subject has received from university reformers rendera 
it difficult to suggest any plan for dealing with it practically, it is 
only a further reason for making the attempt. 

If I have said nothing as yet to prove the expediency of securing 
learned and literary men as residents in the university, it has been 
because I did not conceive any proof to be required. The advantage 
is plainly mutual ; the university gains by the presence of scholars and 
men of science, though they may take no direct part in education, 
while they gain from their residence in a place where theii' social 
position is assured by their learning and ability, and where there are 
so many facilities for study. They will not lecture, simply because 
they have other duties to perform ; but they need not, therefore, be 
less worthy of their hire. They will not be merely pensioners, but 
they will be enabled to live without dissipating their energies in 
desultory efforts for the gratification of the public, or engaging in the 
grinding competition which is the natural law of less purely in- 
tellectual professions. 

Such an element cannot be said to be fully naturalised in Oxford ; 
but it exists more or less even at present. Some of the professorships, 
as now filled, furnish examples of men who though unable or un- 
willing to succeed as lecturers, yet reflect credit on the university by 
their residence within its precincts; and the fellowships, though 
reaUy sinecures, and hampered besides by uncongenial restrictions, are 
occasionally held by persons who use their leisure as a means of 
gaining literary distinction. But these are rather fortunate accidents 
than anything else ; few in number and existing on sufferance, not by 
express recognition and encouragement, they are compelled to adapt 
themselves to existing institutions, and existing institutions are strained 



■27Q APPENDICES. 

to meet them. Tlieir existence does not preclude the need of change ; 
on the contrary, it necessitates it, and indicates the direction which it 
should take. 

The objects to be aimed at in proposing any such scheme of change 
are sufficiently clear. The provision made must be tolerably exten- 
sive, so as to oiFer a prospect of usefulness not to two or three only, 
but to many ; it must be tolerably liberal, so as to relieve those who 
share in it from the necessity of resorting to anything else ; and it 
must be accompanied by some guarantee similar to that which re- 
quires lectures from the professors, so as not to degenerate into 
sinecurism. With these conditions in view it may be possible to 
approach the question practically, though without any definite hope of 
solving it. 

The plan which I contemplate may be described either as a reform 
of the fellowship system or as the erection of a new foundation. 
Externally it might be effected by rearranging a certain proportion of 
the existing fellowships, relieving them from such restrictions as 
orders and celibacy, and attaching to them new duties ; but the 
endowments so created would necessarily have more of a University 
than of a Collegiate character. Those who are aware how completely 
the fellowships have lost in modern practice their original and 
statutable office, and how vain it would be to expect them ever 
to recover it, will scarcely consider it a daring alienation of OoUege 
trusts even if it should be proposed to treat one-third of the present 
revenues as available for the purposes of learning, leaving the remain- 
ing two-thirds, together with the professorships, sacred to education. 
Such an appropriation of funds would at once supply the means of 
founding a large number of pensions, tenable without restriction by 
residents who should resolve to devote themselves to literature or 
science, in some one of their various branches. These pensions 
might be classified according to the several faculties which it was 
thought desirable to encourage, so as to allow each its due proportion 
of students. The students should be elected, like fellows, by examina- 
tion, the tests proposed being stricter in proportion to the importance 
of the prize to be given away : e.g., it might be desirable to require 
some essay or short treatise as a specimen of original investigation in 
the particular subject chosen for study, so as to admit none but those 
who gave real promise of distinction. The right of election might be 



APPENDICES. 277 

accorded to the Colleges in consideration of their supplying the funds, 
but I helieve it would he found much more advantageous to the 
interests of learning that it should he vested in a board of University 
functionaries, of vrhom the professor of the particular department 
■would, of course, be one : in time, too, it would be possible to allow 
the pensioners themselves a voice in filling up their own numbers, as 
would be the case in a College election. It would be necessary, too, 
that they should be subjected periodically, at least during the earlier 
part of their literary career, to some kind of additional examination 
in order to ascertain the use which they might be making of their 
opportunities, facilities being provided for the removal of such as 
should be judged unworthy of their position. For this there is 
already some precedent, not only in the case of certain College ex- 
hibitioners, who are examined terminally by the University professors, 
but in that of the travelling bachelors at Cambridge, who are 
required to produce before the Senate some account of the results of 
their travels. Probably something ia the shape of a yearly disserta- 
tion would be the least objectionable duty to impose, nor would there 
be any reason why such occasional publications should not assist 
rather than hinder the course of study. The examiners, who would 
have to decide on the satisfactoriness of these productions, might 
have the power of dispensing with them imder certain circumstances, 
8uch as where the student was known to be engaged on an elaborate 
work ; but the privilege ought to be very sparingly conceded. It may be 
hoped, too, that in a large proportion of instances literary ambition 
would prove a sufl&cient stimulus to exertion, and that the existence 
of a moderate amount of protection would not altogether interfere 
with the ordinary laws of supply and demand. Five hundred pounds 
a-year might be fixed as the limit which would prevent a vsniter from 
being utterly dependent on the public, and yet encoiirage him to 
increase his resources by his own efibrts. It would be a matter for 
consideration whether some graduated scale could be introduced, so as 
to give an advantage to the older servants of the University, thoug'h 
this, after all, might not be needed. As the pensions would be 
tenable for life, except in the case of non-residence or the acceptance 
of any other appointment, not to mention more obnoxious causes of 
disqualification, it is manifest that a large number would be required 
to secure a reasonable prospect of vacancies. If one-third of the 



278 APPENDICES. 

gross amount resulting from tlie College fellowsliips could be made 
available, it would be easy to establish five pensions in each of the 
principal departments of knowledge ; and these, as compared with 
the professorships, would open as large a field as could be desired for 
literary and scientific aspirants. 

I have entered into these details with some reluctance, knowing 
that they are liable to meet with all manner of objections, and thus to 
discredit the principle for which I am contending. I can only say 
that I attach no value whatever to them in themselves, only suggest- 
ing them because I thought myself bound to put my notions into 
some practical form. For the same reason I have not sought to be 
more definite than appeared absolutely necessary. I have even left it 
doubtful whether I would connect my proposed scheme with the 
Colleges or with the University, as, though I think the latter the more 
feasible arrangement, I believe both to be practicable, and I know 
that there is likely to be a strong feeling against any diversion of 
College property from College control. But whatever may be the 
worth of the means, the importance of the end remains unimpeached. 
I fear that I have expressed my sense of its value very insufficiently, 
but I was unwilling to extend an argument which is already too long ; 
and, feeling the want itself to be real and deep, I could not suppose 
that those who have thought most on university questions would 
need to be reasoned into a belief of its existence. Anyone who has 
experienced it must know that to be met at all it must be met fairly 
and fully, and that no extension of the educational advantages of 
Oxford, whether by revival of the professoriate or by any other 
means, however desirable in itself, can be accepted in satisfaction of a 
deficiency which is not educational but literary. 



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